Direct carboxylation of thiophene with CO2 in the solvent-free carboxylate-carbonate molten medium: Experimental and mechanistic insights

Abstract

A feasible synthesis route is devised for realizing direct carboxylation of thiophene and CO 2 in a relatively mild solvent-free carboxylate-assisted carbonate (semi) molten medium. The effects of reaction factors on product yield are investigated, and the phase behavior analysis of the reaction medium is detected through the thermal characterization techniques. Product yield varies with the alternative carboxylate co-salts, which is attributed to the difference in deprotonation capacity caused by the base effect within the system. Besides, the detailed mechanism of this carbonate-promoted carboxylation reaction is studied, including two consecutive steps of the formation of carbanion through breaking the C—H bond(s) via the carbonate and the nucleophile attacking the weak electrophile CO 2 to form C—C bond(s). The activation energy barrier in C—H activation step is higher than the following CO 2 insertion step whether for the formation of the mono- and/or di-carboxylate, which is in good agreement with that of kinetic isotope effect (KIE) experiments, indicating that the C—H deprotonation is slow and the forming presumed carbanion reacts rapidly with CO 2 . Both the activation energy barriers in deprotonation steps are the minimal for the cesium cluster system since there have the weak the cesium Cs-heteroatom S (thiophene) and Cs-the broken proton interactions compared to the K 2 CO 3 system, which is likely to enhance the acidity of C—H bond, lowering the C—H activation barrier. Besides, these mechanistic insights are further assessed by investigating base and C–H substrate effects via replacing Cs 2 CO 3 with K 2 CO 3 and furoate ( 1a ) with thiophene monocarboxylate ( 1b ) or benzoate ( 1c ).