Abstract
Organisms often exhibit phenotypic plasticity in multiple traits in response to impending environmental change. Multiple traits phenotypic plasticity is complex syndrome brought on by causal relations in ecological and physiological context. Larvae of the salamander Hynobius retardatus exhibit inducible phenotypic plasticity of two traits, when at risk of predation by dragonfly larvae. One induced phenotype is an adaptive defense behaviour, i.e., stasis at the bottom of water column, directly triggered by the predation risk. Another one is a compensatory phenotype, i.e., enlarged external gills, for an unavoidable cost (hypoxia) associated with the induced defense. We identified two ways by which this compensatory phenotype could be induced. The compensatory phenotype is induced in response to not only the associated hypoxic conditions resulting from the induced defense but also the most primary but indirect cause, presence of the predator.
Highlights
Inducible phenotypic plasticity represents the interplay between ecological factors and the organism’s flexible developmental responses
We found that Hynobius retardatus salamander larvae in predator-abundant ponds have remarkably enlarged external gills compared to those in neighbouring ponds with few predators
We found that H. retardatus salamander larvae reduced their surfacing frequency in the presence of larvae of the dragonfly Aeshuna nigroflava, the main predator of the salamander larvae in natural ponds
Summary
Inducible phenotypic plasticity represents the interplay between ecological factors and the organism’s flexible developmental responses. The defensive trait of prey organisms in response to predation risk provides a fitness advantage owing to avoidance of predation mortality, such traits are accompanied by unavoidable costs such as poor resource acquisition [6,7]. Such unavoidable costs constitute a significant challenge to prey animals attempting to cope with the predatory environment, so the prey species might be expected to evolve some secondary means of dealing with these costs. Several researchers have reported empirical evidence suggesting both predation risk and its associated costs induce organisms to change multiple traits [9,10,11,12]
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a callDisclaimer: All third-party content on this website/platform is and will remain the property of their respective owners and is provided on "as is" basis without any warranties, express or implied. Use of third-party content does not indicate any affiliation, sponsorship with or endorsement by them. Any references to third-party content is to identify the corresponding services and shall be considered fair use under The CopyrightLaw.
