Abstract
Several Dinophysis species produce diarrhoetic toxins (okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins) and pectenotoxins, and cause gastointestinal illness, Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP), even at low cell densities (<103 cells·L−1). They are the main threat, in terms of days of harvesting bans, to aquaculture in Northern Japan, Chile, and Europe. Toxicity and toxin profiles are very variable, more between strains than species. The distribution of DSP events mirrors that of shellfish production areas that have implemented toxin regulations, otherwise misinterpreted as bacterial or viral contamination. Field observations and laboratory experiments have shown that most of the toxins produced by Dinophysis are released into the medium, raising questions about the ecological role of extracelular toxins and their potential uptake by shellfish. Shellfish contamination results from a complex balance between food selection, adsorption, species-specific enzymatic transformations, and allometric processes. Highest risk areas are those combining Dinophysis strains with high cell content of okadaates, aquaculture with predominance of mytilids (good accumulators of toxins), and consumers who frequently include mussels in their diet. Regions including pectenotoxins in their regulated phycotoxins will suffer from much longer harvesting bans and from disloyal competition with production areas where these toxins have been deregulated.
Highlights
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) is a human intoxication caused by the consumption of shellfish that contain okadaic acid (OA) and its analogs, the dinophysistoxins (DTX1, dinophysistoxin 2 (DTX2)), their diol ester precursors (DTX4 and DTX5 groups), and their acyl derivatives (DTX3 group) [1,2]
The 2011 outbreak was attributed to D. acuminata, but D. caudata has been found associated with DSP events in the East China Sea region [219], and Dinophysis Toxins‖ (DsT) have been found in liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analyses of picked cells of D. acuminata and D. fortii from the Yellow Sea region [220]
Shellfish harvesting closures lasted over three months in 2012 in the same area, and the presence of OA, DTX1, and PTX2, in Todos Santos Bay, associated with blooms of D. fortii and D. acuminata was confirmed by LC-mass spectrometers (MS/MS) analysis [149]
Summary
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) is a human intoxication caused by the consumption of shellfish that contain okadaic acid (OA) and its analogs, the dinophysistoxins (DTX1, DTX2), their diol ester precursors (DTX4 and DTX5 groups), and their acyl derivatives (DTX3 group) (okadaates, OAs ) [1,2]. Three groups of polyether toxins—OAs, yessotoxins (YTXs) and PTXs—with different molecular structures were initially included in the ―Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning‖ (DSP) toxin complex as they often co-occur in natural microplankton assemblages and in filter-feeding molluscan shellfish species exposed to them. They are co-extracted in the lipophilic fraction from plankton and shellfish samples and detected together (estimated as OA equivalents) by mouse bioassay (MBA) [2,11,12]. The term ―Dinophysis Toxins‖ (DsT) will be used throughout to indicate the sum of okadaates (OAs) and pectenotoxins (PTXs) produced by Dinophysis species
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