Dinoflagellate cyst distribution in the oligotrophic environments of the Gulf of Aqaba and northern Red Sea

Abstract

Abstract Oligotrophic environmental systems form a major part of the marine aquatic environments on earth. Compared to mesotrophic and eutrophic environments extremely little information is available about the relationship between the distribution of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts and physical and biological gradients in the upper water column. Here we present the first comprehensive study of the modern geographic distribution of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in the oligotrophic environments of the northern Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba. We show that sediments of both regions have characteristic dinoflagellate cyst associations consisting of both heterotrophic and phototrophic species of which the latter, including both autotrophic and mixotrophic species, form the major part of the associations in both regions. The upper water environment of the Gulf of Aqaba is characterized by slightly enhanced nutrient concentrations compared to the Red Sea, due to water column mixing in winter. Its phytoplankton composition is dominated by pico- and ultra-plankton and a slight higher amount of eukaryotes compared to northern Red Sea. Its sedimentary cyst associations are characterized by higher relative and absolute abundances of the species Brigantedinium spp., Votadinium calvum, Echinidinium spp., Lingulodinium machaerophorum, Spiniferites spp., Spiniferites bentorii, Spiniferites membranaceus and Spiniferites mirabilis. Sediments of the northern Red Sea are characterized by high relative abundances of Impagidinium aculeatum, Impagidinium sphaericum, Operculodinium israelianum, Operculodinium longispinigerum, Operculodinium centrocarpum, cysts of Pentapharsodinium dalei, and Selenopemphix nephroides. A positive relationship between the distribution of the heterotrophic species Brigantedinium spp., Echinidinium spp. and V. calvum with the occurrence of other eukaryotic groups such as e.g. diatoms is documented. The distribution of S. nephroides cannot be related to the presence of diatom occurrences and it is suggested that the distribution of food sources other than diatoms affects its distribution. We document a positive relationship between the sedimentary distribution of the phototrophic dinoflagellate species L. machaerophorum and Spiniferites species and the abundance of the cyanobacteria Synechococcus in the water column. Since Synechococcus is known to be a potential prey of Lingulodinium polyedrum and members of the Gonyaulax spinifera complex (the motile forms producing these cysts) we suggest a possible cyst distribution–prey relationship of mixotrophic dinoflagellates.