Abstract
The chestnut tiger butterfly, Parantica sita (Kollar) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae), occurs in Asia, along the Himalayas, and into the Malayan region. Previous studies found three types of mitogenomes with substantial genetic divergence in samples from China. To clarify the level of differentiation within P. sita, we investigated both molecular data and morphological features in 429 individuals from China. Upon examination, mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences showed three substantially diverged haplotype groups. Based on microsatellite genotypes, the samples divided into three clusters that were consistent with the COI haplotype groups. With that genetic data, we named three distinguishable P. sita lineages: PS-A, PS-B, and PS-C. We also found obvious morphological differences in wing color, male sex brand, and genitalia structures among the three lineages. According to the published structure of male genitalia, that of PS-A is identical to that of P. s. sita, and that of PS-B is identical to that of P. pedonga. Based on all the results, we tentatively propose dividing P. sita into three species: PS-A (the former P. s. sita) is the typical Parantica sita [Kollar, (1844)], mainly distributed in southwestern China; PS-C (the former P. s. niphonica) is elevated to full species as Parantica niphonica (Moore, 1883), distributed in Taiwan Island and Japan; and PS-B will be Parantica pedongaFujioka, 1970, mainly distributed in Tibet and western Sichuan. Divergence time estimates showed that PS-A separated from the PS-B + PS-C clade about 8.79 million years ago (Ma), when the Hengduan Mountains underwent an appreciable elevation increase, isolating the Tibet population from the others. PS-B and PS-C diverged about 4.87 Ma, in accord with the formation of Taiwan Island mountains. The founder effect may explain why PS-C’s genetic diversity is lower than that of the other clades.
Highlights
Fundamental to understanding the evolutionary sciences is the understanding of the mechanisms underlying biodiversity (Purvis and Hector, 2000), and many studies have attempted to infer how the genetic differentiation of species has been influenced through time and space (e.g., Howes et al, 2006; Cheng et al, 2016; Liu et al, 2019, 2021)
The large number of samples we collected across the P. sita distribution range in China allowed us to investigate mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) haplotypes, and the three resulting haplotype groups we detected in those samples (Figure 1A) were consistent with the findings from those previous studies
Because great genetic divergences in mitochondrial sequences can be found within insect species (Borchers and Marcus, 2014), we analyzed the microsatellite genotypes of our samples
Summary
Fundamental to understanding the evolutionary sciences is the understanding of the mechanisms underlying biodiversity (Purvis and Hector, 2000), and many studies have attempted to infer how the genetic differentiation of species has been influenced through time and space (e.g., Howes et al, 2006; Cheng et al, 2016; Liu et al, 2019, 2021). Genetic differentiation is influenced by both abiotic and biotic factors, possibly working jointly, so that various evolutionary histories are found among different taxa (e.g., Nielson et al, 2001; Kozak et al, 2006; Cheng et al, 2019). Geological events that change topography and climate may critically affect the mechanisms influencing biodiversity (Hewitt, 2000). The uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), including the Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains, in southwestern China created a complex, heterogeneous topography [e.g., large altitudinal differences that often exceed 2,000 m between valleys and mountain ridges in a series of parallel, north-south–oriented mountains (Yao et al, 2010)]. Subsequent habitat diversification led to increased biodiversity through ecological adaptations (Ledevin et al, 2018; Liu et al, 2021), leaving this area a major global biodiversity hotspot with high levels of endemism and species richness (Myers et al, 2000)
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