Abstract
Background: Metabolic stress is high during training and competition of Olympic rowers, but there is a lack of biomedical markers allowing to quantify training load on the molecular level. We aimed to identify such markers applying a complex approach involving inflammatory and immunologic variables.Methods: Eleven international elite male rowers (age 22.7 ± 2.4 yrs.; VO2max 71 ± 5 ml·min−1·kg−1) of the German National Rowing team were monitored at competition phase (COMP) vs. preparation phase (PREP), representing high vs. low load. Perceived stress and recovery were assessed by a Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-76 Sport). Immune cell activation (dendritic cell (DC)/macrophage/monocytes/T-cells) was evaluated via fluorescent activated cell sorting. Cytokines, High-Mobility Group Protein B1 (HMGB1), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), creatine kinase (CK), uric acid (UA), and kynurenine (KYN) were measured in venous blood.Results: Rowers experienced more general stress and less recovery during COMP, but sports-related stress and recovery did not differ from PREP. During COMP, DC/macrophage/monocyte and T-regulatory cells (Treg-cell) increased (p = 0.001 and 0.010). HMGB1 and cfDNA increased in most athletes during COMP (p = 0.001 and 0.048), while CK, UA, and KYN remained unaltered (p = 0.053, 0.304, and 0.211). Pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β (p = 0.002), TNF-α (p < 0.001), and the chemokine IL-8 (p = 0.001) were elevated during COMP, while anti-inflammatory Il-10 was lower (p = 0.002).Conclusion: COMP resulted in an increase in biomarkers reflecting tissue damage, with plausible evidence of immune cell activation that appeared to be compensated by anti-inflammatory mechanisms, such as Treg-cell proliferation. We suggest an anti-inflammatory and immunological matrix approach to optimize training load quantification in elite athletes.
Highlights
In Olympic rowing, a race distance of 2000 m is covered within approximately 5.5–7.5 min, depending on sex, boat class, and environmental conditions and requires a high mechanical power output of 450 to 550 W (Steinacker et al, 1998)
High Load During Competition Phase Leads to Mental Stress
The Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) concentrations in serum samples were directly analyzed with a fluorescent nuclear stain (SYBR Gold) without prior DNA extraction and amplification and a standard curve was generated by serial dilution of commercial salmon sperm DNA. 40 μl of SYBR Gold (1:10,000 dilution in PBS) was added to 10 μl of serum in 96-well plates and fluorescence was recorded using a spectrofluorometer with an excitation wavelength of 485 nm and emission wavelength of 535 nm
Summary
In Olympic rowing, a race distance of 2000 m is covered within approximately 5.5–7.5 min, depending on sex, boat class, and environmental conditions and requires a high mechanical power output of 450 to 550 W (Steinacker et al, 1998). Aside from non-invasive biomarkers like, e.g., resting heart rate, heart rate variability, or mood state, several blood borne variables have been applied to monitor internal training load and/or to diagnose training associated maladaptation (Steinacker et al, 2000; Plews et al, 2014; Hecksteden et al, 2016). These can be categorized into markers of metabolism (e.g., uric acid (UA) and blood lactate), the hormonal system (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, and leptin), and immune response. We aimed to identify such markers applying a complex approach involving inflammatory and immunologic variables
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