Abstract
ObjectivesTo (1) describe micronutrient intakes among women of reproductive age living in Mumbai slums; (2) assess the adequacy of these intakes compared with reference values; (3) identify important dietary sources of micronutrients.Subjects/methodsParticipants were 6426 non-pregnant women aged 16–39 years, registered in a randomised controlled trial of a food-based intervention set in the Bandra, Khar and Andheri areas of Mumbai, India. Cross-sectional quantified food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) data were collected. Vitamin (n = 9) and mineral (n = 6) intakes were calculated and analysed in relation to dietary reference values (DRVs). Important dietary sources were identified for each micronutrient.ResultsMedian intakes of all micronutrients, except vitamin E, were below the FAO/WHO reference nutrient intake (RNI). Intakes of calcium, iron, vitamin A and folate were furthest from the RNI. For seven of the micronutrients, over half of the women had intakes below the lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI); this figure was over 75% for calcium and riboflavin. The majority of women (93%) had intakes below the EAR for 5 or more micronutrients, and 64% for 10 or more. Adolescents had lower intakes than women aged >19 years. Less than 1% of adult women and no adolescents met the EAR for all micronutrients. Animal source foods and micronutrient-rich fruit and vegetables were consumed infrequently.ConclusionsThese women had low intakes of multiple micronutrients, increasing their risk of insufficiency. There is a need to determine the factors causing poor intakes, to direct interventions that improve diet quality and nutritional sufficiency.
Highlights
Micronutrient deficiencies are a serious public health problem among women of reproductive age in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [1,2,3,4]
The aim of this study is to provide a unique insight into food and micronutrient consumption of a large cohort of women of reproductive age living in Mumbai slums
Iron, vitamin A and folate were furthest from the reference nutrient intake (RNI), each with a median ratio below 0.4
Summary
Micronutrient deficiencies are a serious public health problem among women of reproductive age in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [1,2,3,4]. Research Centre, Southampton, UK deficient in one or more vitamins and minerals, iron, zinc and vitamin A [2, 4, 8, 9]. In India, iron, vitamin A and vitamin B12 deficiencies are widespread in lowincome populations, children and pregnant women [10,11,12]. This can exacerbate existing insufficiencies resulting in adverse maternal outcomes [9, 13]. Poor-quality diets before pregnancy may contribute to birth defects, intrauterine growth restriction [1, 14] and infant stunting [15]
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