Diagnosis of Periprosthetic Joint Infection

Abstract

Journal of Orthopaedic ResearchVolume 32, Issue S1 p. S98-S107 Research ArticleFree Access Diagnosis of Periprosthetic Joint Infection First published: 24 January 2014 https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.22553Citations: 32AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Liaison Benjamin Zmistowski BS Leaders Craig Della Valle MD (US), Thomas W Bauer MD (US), Konstantinos N. Malizos MD, PhD (International) Delegates Abbas Alavi MD, Hani Bedair MD, Robert E Booth MD, Peter Choong MD, Carl Deirmengian MD, Garth D Ehrlich PhD, Anil Gambir MD, Ronald Huang MD, Yair Kissin MD, Hideo Kobayashi MD, Naomi Kobayashi MD, Veit Krenn MD, Drago Lorenzo MD, SB Marston MD, Geert Meermans MD, Javier Perez MD, JJ Ploegmakers MD, Aaron Rosenberg MD, C Simpfendorfer MD, Peter Thomas MD, Stephan Tohtz MD, Jorge A Villafuerte MD, Peter Wahl MD, Frank-Christiaan Wagenaar MD, Eivind Witzo MD Question 1A: What is the definition of periprosthetic joint infection (PJI)? Consensus PJI is defined as: • Two positive periprosthetic cultures with phenotypically identical organisms, or • A sinus tract communicating with the joint, or • Having three of the following minor criteria: - Elevated serum C-reactive protein (CRP) AND erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) - Elevated synovial fluid white blood cell (WBC) count OR ++change on leukocyte esterase test strip - Elevated synovial fluid polymorphonuclear neutrophil percentage (PMN%) - Positive histological analysis of periprosthetic tissue - A single positive culture Delegate Vote Agree: 85%, Disagree: 13%, Abstain: 2% (Strong Consensus) Question 1B: What are some considerations for the definition of PJI? Consensus Clinically, PJI may be present without meeting these criteria, specifically in the case of less virulent organisms (e.g., P. acnes). Synovial leukocyte esterase can be performed as a rapid office or intraoperative point of care test using urinalysis strips. In the case of a bloody aspiration, centrifugation has been shown to preserve the accuracy of the colorimetric test for leukocyte esterase. Delegate Vote Agree: 76%, Disagree: 14%, Abstain: 10% (Strong Consensus) Justification This is an adaptation of the Musculoskeletal Infection Society's (MSIS) definition of PJI.1 A sinus tract communicating with the prosthetic joint or two positive cultures with phenotypically identical organisms can be considered pathognomonic for PJI and therefore either of these items alone defines it. The minor criteria are traditional tests utilized in the work-up of PJI that have a proven, reproducible accuracy in diagnosis yet are not independently pathognomonic for joint infection. Serum ESR and CRP are known sensitive markers of PJI with relatively poor specificity and can be influenced by other infectious and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, including extra-articular infection.2-6 The combination of an elevated ESR and CRP with traditional thresholds has been shown to be a more accurate predictor of PJI than isolated elevations of the ESR or CRP alone.4, 5, 7 Synovial fluid WBC count and PMN% are well established as markers of PJI.3, 8-12 They are accurate predictors of PJI that can occasionally be elevated in an aseptic joint pain. Despite significant variability between institutions, multiple authors—including those of a rigorous meta-analysis13—have shown the utility of histologic analysis of periprosthetic tissue to diagnose PJI.13-20 Although the appropriate thresholds for diagnosing PJI in histologic analysis is controversial, a maximum tissue concentration between 5 and 10 PMN/HPF in each of 5 or more HPF seems to carry the best diagnostic performance. The criterion of a total of 23 PMNs in 10 HPF17 is thought to lead to the same final diagnosis as the criteria listed above in most cases. Neutrophils entrapped in superficial fibrin are not predictive of infection and submitting samples obtained by sharp dissection instead of cautery will help limit false positive diagnoses due to thermal artifacts. Recent analyses have shown that application of synovial fluid to a simple urine test strip and attention to leukocyte esterase results can be an accurate marker of PJI (sensitivity = 81–93% specificity = 87–100%) with instantaneous results.21, 22 One study found that one-third of synovial aspirates were unable to be tested with colorimetric reagent strips.22 However, recent work suggests that centrifugation of the synovial sample at 6,600 revolutions per minute for 2–3 min will help separate out the red blood cells and allowing for colorimetric testing to be performed accurately.23 A single positive culture, while suggestive of PJI, can represent a false positive24-26 and is therefore a minor criterion and must be weighed in light of other diagnostic tests. Gram stain24, 27-32 and serum WBC count and differential12, 33, 34 have been shown to be poor markers of PJI and have therefore not been included in this definition. Intra-articular purulence, a former minor criterion of the MSIS,1 has often been considered pathognomonic for PJI. However, purulence has also recently been found in cases of adverse local tissue reaction to metal-on-metal hip implants and corrosion reactions associated with a modular metal-on-metal junction.35-37 Furthermore, determining the presence of purulence is subjective. As a consequence purulence has now been removed as a minor criterion from definition of PJI. Question 2: Do you agree with the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons's (AAOS) algorithm for diagnosis of PJI? Consensus The following is an adaptation of the AAOS's algorithm for the diagnosis of PJI. This algorithm should be applied to patients who present with a painful or failed arthroplasty. Delegate Vote Agree: 91%, Disagree: 0%, Abstain: 9% (Strong Consensus) Figure 1Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Considerations Clinical judgment should not be outweighed by use of the diagnostic algorithm or any one individual test. A preoperative aseptic diagnosis using this algorithm should not eliminate suspicion for PJI. Patients should be considered to have a higher probability of infection if they have a history of persistent pain or stiffness and any of the following: Recent bacteremia, Multiple surgeries on the same joint, History of periprosthetic joint infection, Comorbidities predisposing patients to an immunocompromised state, eg diabetes mellitus, inflammatory arthropathy, or malnourishment, Factors that increase risk of skin barrier penetration, eg intravenous drug use, poor wound conditions, psoriasis, chronic venous stasis, or skin ulceration, Superficial surgical site infection related to the joint. Physical exam findings suggestive of PJI: Wound dehiscence, or Joint warmth, redness, or swelling Plain radiographic signs suggestive of PJI: Signs of loosening of previously well-fixed components (particularly loosening seen within the first 5 years postoperatively), Osteolysis or bone resorption around the prosthetic components should not be considered to be related to wear of the bearing surface, particularly if seen at less than 5 years post-operatively, Subperiosteal elevation, or Transcortical sinus tracts. It is important to note that plain radiographs are generally normal in the setting of PJI. Justification In data analysis performed by this workgroup's members, the use of serology screening followed by joint aspiration with fluid cell count analysis has an estimated accuracy of 90% for diagnosing PJI in the preoperative setting when compared to the definition of PJI provided above. A separate multi-criteria decision analysis by workgroup members exhibited that ESR and CRP screening with subsequent joint aspiration is the most cost-effective method for diagnosing PJI.38 This algorithm is an adaptation of the AAOS algorithm,39 incorporating the components of the definition provided above. As discussed above, these individual components are accurate markers of PJI. Biopsy of the joint has an established accuracy in diagnosing PJI.40-46 Due to the invasive nature of this tool and the theoretical risk of contaminating a previously aseptic joint, pre-operative biopsy should be limited to those cases with a high probability of PJI with inconclusive aspirate results. Intraoperative frozen sections, however, may help distinguish infection from aseptic failure with less potential morbidity than pre-operative biopsy. The presence of well-established risk factors for PJI should raise the suspicion of septic failure. Risk factors include those that increase pathogen exposure to the joint or impair the body's ability to eradicate pathogens.47-50 A sinus tract communicating with the joint is considered a pathognomonic physical examination finding for PJI. Other findings, such as wound dehiscence, joint tenderness, or joint swelling, are not specific for PJI, but should increase the suspicion. Question 3A: What should the threshold be for ESR, serum CRP, PMN%, and WBC count for ACUTE PJI? Consensus The approximate cutoffs listed below apply to tests obtained fewer than 6 weeks from the most recent surgery: - No threshold for ESR could be determined as it is not useful in diagnosis of acute PJI. - CRP > 100 mg/L (knee and hip), - Synovial WBC count > 10,000 cells/µl, and - Synovial PMN% > 90%. Delegate Vote Agree: 81%, Disagree: 12%, Abstain: 7% (Strong Consensus) Question 3B: What should the threshold be for ESR, serum CRP, PMN%, and WBC count for CHRONIC PJI? Consensus The approximate cutoffs listed below apply to tests obtained more than 6 weeks from the most recent surgery: - ESR > 30 mm/h, - CRP > 10 mg/L, - Synovial WBC count > 3,000 cells/µl, and - Synovial PMN% > 80%. Delegate Vote Agree: 81%, Disagree: 14%, Abstain: 5% (Strong Consensus) Question 3C: What should the threshold be for ESR, serum CRP, PMN%, and WBC count for PJI in inflammatory arthropathies? Consensus Based upon very limited evidence, we recommend no change from the above thresholds for ESR, serum CRP, PMN%, and WBC count for PJI diagnosis in patients who have underlying inflammatory arthopathies. However, further research is needed to confirm this statement. Delegate Vote Agree: 87%, Disagree: 9%, Abstain: 4% (Strong Consensus) Justification Serology ESR and CRP are traditionally utilized as screening tests for the detection of PJI. As such, it is imperative that these tests have a high sensitivity, possibly compromising specificity. These serology thresholds have been established and confirmed by a multitude of studies with limited variability. ESR and CRP have both been shown to be elevated in the acute postoperative time period (6 weeks) regardless of infection status. ESR has been shown to have limited diagnostic utility in this setting.8 In the acute postoperative setting CRP has been shown in published and workgroup research to have accuracy in diagnosing PJI.8 The existing literature used 6 weeks as their definition of the acute postoperative time period. However, ESR and CRP are likely still elevated up to 90 days following surgery. Limited evidence suggests that no difference exists in the thresholds of ESR, CRP, or synovial fluid WBC count and differential to diagnose PJI in patients with and without inflammatory arthropathies.3 Synovial fluid These thresholds are based upon extensive data analysis from members of this workgroup. Evidence for synovial fluid thresholds to diagnose PJI varies significantly.7, 9-12, 51-53 It is believed that these variations are due to the different definitions of PJI utilized in these studies and variances in laboratory results.54, 55 The thresholds reported here were calculated with the aforementioned definition of PJI and similar laboratory techniques when available. Evidence, both published and analyzed by this workgroup, has shown that synovial WBC count and PMN% remain highly valuable in the diagnosis of infection in the acute postoperative period, despite having a baseline elevation due to the insult of surgery.8 As discussed above, while these thresholds are likely still valid within 90 days, evidence is only available for the first 6 postoperative weeks. Evidence has indicated that the presence of inflammatory arthropathies does not impact synovial WBC count and PMN% thresholds for the diagnosis of PJI.3 Early data suggest that the synovial fluid WBC count may be unreliable and prone to falsely positive results in the setting of a failed metal-on-metal bearing or corrosion reaction. These results should be considered carefully in this setting. A manual synovial fluid WBC count is recommended in this setting and if a differential cannot be performed on the sample, the results should be suspect. Failed metal-on-metal bearings or corrosion reactions may result in a marked variability of the synovial fluid WBC count and differential.56 Monocytes with phagocytosed metal particles seem to be interpreted as polymorphonuclear leukocytes (neutrophils) by some automated hematology instruments leading to false positive PMN interpretations. Therefore, synovial WBC analysis in patients with metal-on-metal bearings and corrosion reactions should be counted manually, especially when discordance between PMN% and WBC count elevation is noted. Question 4: In analyzing synovial fluid cell count, what are important techniques to minimize variation? Consensus To accurately analyze synovial fluid cell count we recommend that 1 synovial fluid WBC count results be transformed using the synovial red blood cell (RBC), serum RBC, and serum WBC concentrations to adjust for traumatic aspirations and 2 in joints with metal-on-metal components a manual WBC analysis should be performed. Delegate Vote Agree: 92%, Disagree: 1%, Abstain: 7%. Justification Numerous studies, despite having varying definitions of PJI, have identified similar thresholds for ESR and serum CRP in diagnosing PJI.3-5, 57, 58 Reported variations between laboratories for synovial fluid analysis55 may be the cause for heterogeneity in thresholds of synovial WBC count and PMN% to diagnose PJI, specifically in the hip versus knee versus shoulder. Such differences may be accounted for in part by: Traumatic aspirations. Presence of metal-on-metal bearing surfaces or corrosion reactions. Using a validated technique, the true level of synovial leukocytosis can be determined by adjusting for the synovial RBC, serum RBC, and serum WBC counts.59 Metal-on-metal bearings and corrosion reactions may result in a significant variability of the synovial fluid WBC count and differential.56 Therefore, synovial WBC analysis in patients with metal-on-metal bearings and corrosion reactions should be counted manually, especially when discordance between PMN% and WBC count elevation is noted. Question 5: How long should routine cultures be kept? Consensus We recommend that routine cultures should be maintained between 5 and 14 days. In cases of suspected PJI with low virulence organisms or if preoperative cultures have failed to show bacterial growth and the clinical picture is consistent with PJI (suspected culture-negative PJI) the cultures should be maintained for 14 days or longer. Delegate Vote Agree: 93%, Disagree: 5%, Abstain: 2%. Justification Evidence has shown that extending periprosthetic cultures to 2 weeks in attempts to diagnose PJI significantly increases the culture sensitivity while not increasing the risk of contaminants.60-63 While there is no evidence to determine the cost-effectiveness of 2-week versus 1-week cultures in presumed aseptic cases, the incidence of clinically significant positive results is not insignificant. Therefore, adequate culture duration for all potential pathogens is recommended in presumed aseptic cases.64, 65 It is also believed that the majority of common infecting organisms can be isolated within a few days of conventional cultures. There is no reason to extend the duration of culture in patients in whom the infecting organism has been isolated preoperatively. For patients with suspected PJI, culture negative cases, and patients who may be infected with low virulence organisms, the culture should be maintained for a prolonged period (14 days and perhaps longer). Question 6A: Is there a role for routine acid-fast bacillus (AFB) and fungal testing in suspected PJI? Consensus In proven or suspected PJI, AFB and fungal cultures should be limited to those patients at risk for such infections or when other traditional pathogens have not been identified and clinical suspicion persists. Delegate Vote Agree: 92%, Disagree: 6%, Abstain: 1% (Strong Consensus) Question 6B: Is there a role for routine AFB and fungal testing in suspected aseptic failure? Consensus No. AFB and fungal cultures do not play a role in presumed aseptic cases (e.g., cases where a synovial fluid WBC count and differential performed preoperatively were not suggestive of infection). Delegate Vote Agree: 91%, Disagree: 7%, Abstain: 2% (Strong Consensus) Justification Mycobacteria and fungi are rare causes of PJI.66-68 Therefore, even in cases of proven or suspected PJI, costly and time-consuming investigation is likely not warranted in patients without risk or suspicion for atypical infections. Evidence has shown that routine AFB and fungal testing in presumed aseptic cases does not yield clinically important findings, nor is it cost-effective.69 Question 7A: How many intraoperative tissue samples should be sent for culture in suspected PJI cases and cases of suspected aseptic failure? Consensus In most revision procedures, more than 3 but not more than 6 distinct intraoperative tissue samples should be sent for aerobic and anaerobic culture. Delegate Vote Agree: 88%, Disagree: 10%, Abstain: 2% (Strong Consensus) Question 7B: How should culture samples be obtained? Consensus Tissue or fluid samples from representative area should be taken, preferably from the interface, each sample taken with an unused instrument. We strongly recommend against swab cultures from wound or periarticular tissues. Delegate Vote Agree: 97%, Disagree: 2%, Abstain: 1% (Strong Consensus) Question 7C: Should antibiotic be withheld prior to obtaining samples for culture in all cases? Consensus No. Perioperative prophylactic antibiotics should be withheld only in cases with a high suspicion for PJI in which an infecting organism has not been isolated. Delegate Vote Agree: 87%, Disagree: 12%, Abstain: 1% (Strong Consensus) Justification Protocols for periprosthetic tissue collection have historically been established with a target of 5 samples.25, 63, 70 In the only known quantitative analysis, it was found that sensitivity and specificity are maximized with 5 or 6 periprosthetic samples being collected.24 It has been suggested that for less virulent organisms or in patients with recent antibiotic use, up to 10 periprosthetic samples should be routinely collected.71 However, it is believed that poor sensitivity due to recent antibiotic use or less virulent organisms can be overcome by other techniques (e.g., increased incubation time, molecular techniques, or explant sonication).63, 72-74 As such, culture specificity should not be compromised by taking more than 5 samples. In an analysis of 117 revision cases (30 with PJI) with 3 periprosthetic tissue and 3 periprosthetic swab cultures, it was shown that swab cultures have a sensitivity (70% vs. 93%) and specificity (89% vs. 98%) inferior to tissue culture.75 This is in support of an earlier study with similar findings with a less stringent definition of PJI.76 Two prospective (one randomized) studies have demonstrated that prophylactic preoperative antibiotics do not impair the sensitivity of traditional intraoperative cultures.77, 78 As such, it is suggested that mandatory withholding of prophylactic antibiotics is not justified in cases in which a pathogen has already been identified. In cases in which PJI is diagnosed or suspected and a pathogen has yet to be identified, the use of prophylactic antibiotics is dependent upon clinical judgment. Question 8: Is there a role for routine sonication of the prosthesis? If so, in which group of patients should this be done? Consensus No. We do not recommend routine sonication of explants. Its use should be limited to cases of suspected or proven PJI (based upon presentation and other testing) in which preoperative aspiration does not yield positive culture and antibiotics have been administered within the previous 2 weeks. Delegate Vote Agree: 84%, Disagree: 9%, Abstain: 7% (Strong Consensus) Justification Explant sonication during revision arthroplasty of the hip, knee, and shoulder has been shown to increase the likelihood of isolating pathogens without increasing the rate of contaminants.73, 74, 79-83 Sonication of explants is a time- and resource-intensive procedure that is likely not justified in presumed aseptic cases. Further, the equipment to perform sonication is not widely available. In a large prospective analysis of 331 cases, the greatest advantage of explant sonication over standard tissue culture was appreciated when antibiotics were provided within 2 weeks of surgery.74 Sonication likely has this advantage because the process removes biofilm from the explant, allowing for sampling and culture. Planktonic bacteria typically captured by standard periprosthetic sampling are more susceptible to antibiotic therapy than sessile organisms. Question 9: Is there a role for molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for diagnosis of PJI? If so, in which group of patients should this be done? Consensus Nucleic acid based testing is not currently a recommended routine diagnostic test for PJI. In cases with high clinical suspicion of infection but negative cultures or other diagnostic tests, molecular techniques with or without sonication may help identify the unknown pathogens or antibiotic sensitivity for targeting antimicrobial therapies. Delegate Vote Agree: 96%, Disagree: 3%, Abstain: 1% (Strong Consensus) Justification PCR techniques have been shown to be significantly more sensitive than standard tissue culture for detecting pathogens.72, 79, 84-92 However, despite multiple modified techniques, the number of false-positive results precludes screening with the types of molecular techniques currently most commonly available.The specificity of PCR techniques has a wide reported range between 0–100%.72, 86-89, 93 An advantage of molecular techniques is that it can be used in the detection of organisms, even with recent antibiotic use.79, 93 Improved detection is observed in PCR of sonication fluid from explants with and without standard tissue culture.79, 85, 90, 93, 94 This additive effect is likely observed due to the introduction of sessile bacteria into the tested sample. While molecular techniques have shown some promise in identifying genes associated with antibiotic resistance,72, 81, 94 they do not yet match the clinical applicability of testing the antibiotic susceptibility of organisms grown in culture. The cost and availability of this technology limit its broad application and therefore is not considered a standard tool in the work-up of PJI. Question 10: Is there a role for imaging modalities in the diagnosis of PJI? Consensus Plain radiographs should be performed in all cases of suspected PJI. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and nuclear imaging currently DO NOT have a direct role in the diagnosis of PJI but may be helpful in the identification of other causes of joint pain/failure. Delegate Vote Agree: 93%, Disagree: 7%, Abstain: 0% (Strong Consensus) Justification Plain radiographs are not accurate markers of PJ I.95 Despite this, other etiologies of joint failure are well apparent on plain radiographs. Plain film may show subperiosteal bone growth, loosening, transcortical sinus tracts, or normal findings in the setting of PJI. There is a paucity of data regarding the diagnostic value of MRI. However, the artifact caused by the presence of the prosthetic implant is well known and suggests that evaluation of the periprosthetic region for infection may not be possible.96 One analysis is known to have investigated the diagnostic utility of CT imaging for periprosthetic hip infection.97 That study reported that soft-tissue findings such as joint distention and periprosthetic fluid collections were accurate (94% and 89%, respectively) markers of PJI. However, these findings cannot be generalized to other joints and have not been confirmed in subsequent studies. Therefore, it is not currently recommended to utilize CT to evaluate for PJI when other imaging and non-invasive tests have proven efficacy. There is substantial evidence regarding the effectiveness of nuclear imaging in diagnosing PJI.94, 98-108 While many different nuclear imaging techniques have been tested and proven for PJI diagnosis, the most accurate and cost-effective technique has yet to be elucidated. Furthermore, with the high cost of performing and analyzing nuclear imaging, its role in the work-up for PJI should be limited. As such, there is rare utility for nuclear imaging with the multitude of more cost-effective measures. Furthermore, plans to return the patient to the operating room will allow for joint visualization, periprosthetic tissue culture, and possible explant sonication. REFERENCES 1 Parvizi J, Zmistowski B, Berbari EF, et al. 2011. New definition for periprosthetic joint infection: from the Workgroup of the Musculoskeletal Infection Society. Clin Orthop Relat Res 469: 2992– 2994. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 2 Berbari E, Mabry T, Tsaras G, et al. 2010. 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