Abstract
BackgroundDepression is already highly prevalent by late adolescence, indicating that research into its developmental emergence should consider earlier risk factors and environmental contexts. The home environment is a key context for children and adolescents throughout development. However, the nature of relationships that exist between aspects of the home environment and the development of depressive symptoms cannot be assumed. Genetically informative studies have been used to provide insights about the aetiology of such relationships, often finding them to be partly confounded by the influence of children's genes. Here, we investigate developmental change in the aetiology of the association between aspects of the home environment and depressive symptoms at the onset of adolescence.MethodsWe used longitudinal child‐ and parent‐report data from >5,000 twin pairs enrolled in the UK‐representative Twins Early Development Study. Multivariate, genetically sensitive structural equation models were used to decompose latent variance and covariance in depressive symptoms (measured at 12 and 16 years) and aspects of the home environment (at 9 and 14 years) into genetic and environmental influences.ResultsGoing from childhood to adolescence, genetic influences accounted for an increasing proportion of the association [30% (16–42) of r = .44 in childhood; 40% (25–61) of r = .43 in adolescence], at the expense of shared environmental influences, which decreased from 70% (58–83) to 48% (29–62). Unique environmental influences accounted for a significant proportion of the association in adolescence only [12% (06–18)]. Developmental changes could largely be attributed to subtle shifts in the relative importance of stable aetiological factors, rather than the emergence of influences unique to adolescence.ConclusionsThese findings emphasise the importance of developmental and aetiological context in interpreting associations between aspects of the home environment and child emotional outcomes.
Highlights
Depression represents a substantial individual and societal burden across the life span (Costello, Mustillo, Erkanli, Keeler, & Angold, 2003; Merikangas et al, 2010)
We examine the aetiology of the association between a general index of maladaptive processes in the home environment and depressive symptoms
Mean change over time was either nonsignificant or represented a slight but significant decrease between childhood and adolescence. This was in line with findings of low-level selective attrition indicated by slightly elevated mean scores in childhood for individuals who failed to provide data in adolescence, compared with those for whom adolescent data were available, on several variables
Summary
Depression represents a substantial individual and societal burden across the life span (Costello, Mustillo, Erkanli, Keeler, & Angold, 2003; Merikangas et al, 2010). Adolescent depression is predictive of a range of future difficulties (Harrington, Fudge, Rutter, Pickles, & Hill, 1990, 1991; Harrington et al, 1994) and is itself predicted by earlier, more generalised emotional difficulties and symptoms (Birmaher et al, 1996) In part, this developmental continuity of risk seems to reflect a stable, underlying genetic liability to the disorder in childhood/adolescence (Hannigan, Walaker, Waszczuk, McAdams, & Eley, 2017) and beyond (Nivard et al, 2015). We investigate developmental change in the aetiology of the association between aspects of the home environment and depressive symptoms at the onset of adolescence. Conclusions: These findings emphasise the importance of developmental and aetiological context in interpreting associations between aspects of the home environment and child emotional outcomes.
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