Development of a Scale to Address Perceptions of Pre-service Teachers Regarding Online Risks for Children

Abstract

High penetration rates and rapid integration of Information and Communication Technologies [ICTs] into our daily lives have promoted them as a layer of our individual and social life spheres (Odabasi, Kabakci, & Coklar, 2007). Gaining momentum from fast, easy, and affordable access via broadband and mobile internet services, the internet is now readily available for children within households and schools (Chou & Peng, 2011). Recent studies suggest the internet is second nature to children and that their access is both mobile and autonomous (Livingstone, Haddon, Gorzig, & Olafsson, 2011). Despite the number of terms (e.g., digital native, millennials, network generation) signaling children's fluency with the internet and digital technologies, their experiences with the internet are challenged (Valcke, Bonte, De Wever, & Rots, 2010). Children's online experiences include both opportunities (e.g., online learning and digital citizenship) and risks (e.g., cyberbullying and internet addiction) (Chang, 2010; Gasser, Maclay, & Palfrey, 2010; Smahel et al., 2012). Several studies have reported the problems encountered by children while engaged with the internet (Jones, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2012; Livingstone, Davidson, Bryce, Hargrave, & Grove-Hills, 2012; Valcke, De Wever, Van Keer, & Schellens, 2011; Walrave, n.d.). For example, a recent report from research conducted across the European Union [EU] suggested that one out of every four Turkish children (25%) had encountered online risks and the EU average was as high as 33% (Kasikci, Cagiltay, Karakus, Kursun, & Ogan, 2014). Furthermore, the same study reported that EU children experienced a variety of online risks, which included under-age social network membership (33%), sharing sensitive information (85%), encountering inappropriate sexual content (13%), sending (4%) and receiving (12%) sexual messages, cyberbullying (3%), making online friends (14%), and meeting online friends face'to'face (2%). Such reports emphasized that children who lack the required e-literacies are more vulnerable to online risks.Several studies have sought to identify and classify online risks. In an early attempt, Jantz and McMurray (1998, as cited in Chou & Peng, 2011) classified online risks under the broad themes of content-related and communication-related. Aftab (2000) took a more elaborative approach and classified online risks under six themes: inappropriate and harmful content, cyber-stalking, online harassment, disclosure of sensitive information, cyber-grooming, and online-purchase frauds. Poftak (2002) used a similar classification with pornography, hacking, copyright issues, cyberbullying, and inappropriate relationships with adults. DeMoor et al. (2008, as cited in Valcke et al., 2011) adopted a structural approach and categorized online risks under content, contact, and commercial risks themes. Content risks covered exposure to provocative content and incorrect information. Contact risks were elaborated under online and offline themes, where online risks covered cyberbullying, sexual solicitation, and privacy risks. Commercial exploitation and unwanted collection of personal data were included within the commercial risks category. Organization for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD, 2011) created a comprehensive categorization with three themes. In this categorization, internet technology risks covered content (e.g., illegal content) and contact (e.g., cyberbullying) risks. Consumer-related risks were related to online marketing (e.g., buying illegal or age-restricted products), overspending, and fraudulent transactions. The final theme covered information security (e.g., spywares) and information privacy (e.g., over-sharing personal information) risks. Hasebrink, Livingstone, Haddon, and Olafsson (2009) analyzed online risks under commercial interests, aggression, sexuality, and values/ideology themes. Notably, this categorization was unique as it considered the role of the child. …