Abstract
This work reports the development and optimization of a rapid and low-cost pen-on-paper plotting approach for the fabrication of paper-based analytical devices (PADs) using commercial writing stationery. The desired fluidic patterns were drawn on the paper substrate with commercial marker pens using an inexpensive computer-controlled x–y plotter. For the fabrication of electrochemical PADs, electrodes were further deposited on the devices using a second x–y plotting step with commercial writing pencils. The effect of the fabrication parameters (type of paper, type of marker pen, type of pencil, plotting speed, number of passes, single- vs. double-sided plotting), the chemical resistance of the plotted devices to different solvents and the structural rigidity to multiple loading cycles were assessed. The analytical utility of these devices is demonstrated through application in optical sensing of total phenols using reflectance calorimetry and in electrochemical sensing of paracetamol and ascorbic acid. The proposed manufacturing approach is simple, low cost, flexible, rapid and fit-for-purpose and enables the fabrication of sub-“one-dollar” PADs with satisfactory mechanical and chemical resistance and good analytical performance.
Highlights
The use of paper as a platform to perform chemical assays has a long history [1,2,3,4], the birth of the modern field of paper-based analytical devices (PADs) was marked by the pioneering work by the Whitesides’ group [5] and the concept was further extended in recent years with the introduction of 3D and folding PADs incorporating additional and promising functionalities for sample manipulation, transport and detection [6,7]
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A method for fabricating PADs via a PoP approach using x–y plotting with commercial stationery was developed and optimized
Summary
The use of paper as a platform to perform chemical assays has a long history [1,2,3,4], the birth of the modern field of paper-based analytical devices (PADs) was marked by the pioneering work by the Whitesides’ group [5] and the concept was further extended in recent years with the introduction of 3D and folding PADs incorporating additional and promising functionalities for sample manipulation, transport and detection [6,7]. The key features of paper as a substrate for the fabrication of PADs are [1,8]: (a) flexibility, which enables the formation of complex and conformable 2D and 3D structures that are not subject to tearing upon bending; (b) low thickness (typically tens or hundreds of micrometers), resulting in low (in the microliter or sub-microliter range) sample/regent volume required for analysis; (c) absorbency, which allows storage and delivery of an exact volume of samples/reagents inside the paper matrix and enrichment of the sample via multiple addition/drying steps; (d) lightness (typically around 10 mg/cm2 ), which enhances the scope for portability; (e) high surface-to-volume ratio, enabling the more efficient immobilization of reagents, enzymes or biomolecular probes; (f) hydrophilicity and capillary action, i.e., the ability of paper to wick fluids and allow solution movement through capillary forces dispenses with the use of pumps and permits multidirectional fluid flow in all directions; (g) chemical and biological inertness, enabling compatibility with biological samples; (h) disposability and biodegradability, since cellulose is rapidly degraded by microorganisms (~50 days) without toxic by-products and can be disposed of by incineration, eliminating the problem of contamination with biological
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