Abstract
Two-hundred-nine free ranging non-human primates from 31 locations throughout Costa Rica were captured and released between 1993 and 2012, and blood samples, sera or plasma were collected, to detect antigens and antibodies, and so assess the distribution of active and passive flavivirus infections over time. A competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay for the detection of antibodies was used to determine the distribution of past flavivirus infections over time, while Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) was used to detect active West Nile Virus (WNV) and Dengue virus (DENV) infections. The first serological evidence of flavivirus in these animals was determined in 1993, at the same time when DENV re-emerged in humans from Costa Rica. An increase in the number of seropositive wild monkeys to flavivirus was determined over time in the country (11.3% seropositivity in 1993–1996, 20.7% in 2001–2008, and finally 52.9% in 2010–2012). Furthermore, the presence of DENV2 was detected in samples from four howler monkeys collected in 2001–2002, whereas DENV2, DENV3, and DENV4 were found in samples from four white-faced monkeys, and WNV in three howler monkeys living in the Pacific coast of Costa Rica during 2010–2012. The habitat where the positive PCR individuals lived were characterized as fragmented forests, having temperatures ranging from 26°C to 28°C, altitudes below 250 meters above sea level, high precipitation during 7 to 9 months (1500–4000 mm), and a marked dry season of 3 to 5 months. All these animals were living near mangroves; however, they did not show clinical signs of illness at the time of sampling. Results obtained show that the number of seropositive wild non-human primates to flavivirus were increasing during time in the country, longitudinal studies are needed to investigate their role as sentinels of these viruses and to determine if flavivirus infections can affect these species.
Highlights
West Nile virus (WNV) and Dengue virus (DENV) have been classified within the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and are part of the medically important Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) serocomplex [1]
Serum was not available from these animals. These results represent the first report of serological detection of flavivirus in non-human primates from Costa Rica
Most probably the antibodies detected against protein E in animals during the first sampling period (1993 to 1996) were due to DENV infection, since WNV was introduced first in the American continent in 1999, and no other flavivirus was reported during these years in Costa Rica
Summary
West Nile virus (WNV) and Dengue virus (DENV) have been classified within the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and are part of the medically important Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) serocomplex [1]. Each of these viruses causes similar disease syndromes in humans, manifesting as an asymptomatic or mild flu like illness to clinical encephalitis [2]. Eradication of the vector Aedes aegypti was certified in 1955 in Costa Rica, and after decades of absence, DENV was reintroduced in 1993, the year in which the first endogenous transmissions were reported in the country [3]. WNV was reported to cause mortality among equines and certain domestic and wild birds [10], human infections in endemic areas are usually mild or subclinical, severe disease is commonly associated with the elderly [11]
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