Abstract
Previous work has shown that testing can enhance learning and retention of subsequently studied new information. The present study investigated this forward testing effect in spatial memory. In two experiments, participants studied four successively presented 3 × 3 arrays, each composed of the same nine objects. They were asked to memorize the locations of the objects which differed across the four arrays. Following presentation of Arrays 1–3, memory for the object locations of the respective array was tested (testing condition), or the array was re-presented for additional study (restudy condition). Thereafter, Array 4 was presented and tested in both the testing and the restudy condition. In Experiment 1, testing was self-paced, whereas in Experiment 2, testing time was controlled by the experimenter. Consistent across the two experiments, testing was found to enhance location memory for Array 4, relative to restudying. Furthermore, testing also reduced the number of confusion errors (i.e., the tendency to misplace objects to locations on which they had appeared previously) made during recall of Array 4, suggesting that testing reduced the interference potential of prior information. The results indicate that testing can enhance subsequent learning of spatial information by reducing the build-up of proactive interference from previously studied information.
Highlights
An intriguing implication from recent research is that introducing difficulties into the learning process can affect learning and memory in desirable ways (Schmidt and Bjork, 1992; Bjork, 1994)
As can be seen from the figure, object location memory was poorer for Array 4 in the restudy condition than for Array 1 in the testing condition [64.4% vs. 94.4%, t(47) = 7.69, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001, d = 1.16], reflecting substantial proactive interference in the restudy condition
Location memory for Array 4 was higher in the testing condition (78.7%) than in the restudy condition (64.4%), indicating that testing significantly reduced the build-up of proactive interference [t(47) = 3.10, SE = 0.05, p = 0.003, d = 0.45]
Summary
An intriguing implication from recent research is that introducing difficulties into the learning process can affect learning and memory in desirable ways (Schmidt and Bjork, 1992; Bjork, 1994). Numerous studies have found that taking a test on previously studied information can lead to superior long-term retention of that information, compared to other, supposedly less effortful learning “activities” such as doing nothing or restudying the information This beneficial effect of testing, hereinafter called the backward testing effect (BTE; Pastötter and Bäuml, 2014), has been demonstrated using a wide range of learning materials and employing both laboratory and classroom settings (e.g., Hogan and Kintsch, 1971; Wheeler and Roediger, 1992; Roediger and Karpicke, 2006; Carpenter and Pashler, 2007; McDaniel et al, 2007; Karpicke and Roediger, 2008; for a review, see Roediger and Butler, 2011). The findings indicate that, in addition to enhancing memory for previously studied (and tested) information (BTE), testing can enhance learning and retention of subsequently studied new information (FTE)
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