Designing performance enhanced nuclear battery based on the Cd‐109 radioactive source

A review of nuclear batteries

As an important kind of energy source, radioisotope batteries are attracting more and more academic researchers and people from industry due to the high power density, long lifetime (equal to half life of the radioisotope source), outstanding reliability, without maintenance, miniaturization and wide application compared with traditional dry batteries, chemical batteries, fuel batteries and solar batteries. Based on the optimization of functional materials and energy conversion types, radioisotope batteries have been developed for more than 15 species since the first β battery invented by Henry Mosley in 1913. This review describes historical background and development, limitations of key techniques in radioisotope batteries. The radioisotope source loading methods and thermocouple materials of radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), the semiconductor materials and energy conversion units of radiation voltaic isotope batteries (RVIB) are analysed in detail. After an introduction of the basic principles and design requirements of radioisotope batteries, we discuss the technical proposals of different energy conversions for radioisotope batteries. Then, the most recent experimental results for several configurations and experimental set-ups of radioisotope batteries are introduced detailedly, including static thermoelectric type radioisotope batteries, radiation voltaic effect radioisotope batteries, dynamic energy transformation radioisotope batteries and piezoelectric energy transformation radioisotope batteries. The figure for PCEs (Power Conversion Efficiencies) in different radioisotope batteries from 1913 to 2015 is first demonstrated in the end, which illustrates the PCEs of RTG, RVIB are close to 10% and DIPS (Dynamic Isotope Power System) is higher than 23%. Thus, the PCEs of radioisotope batteries will increase effectively if some various high efficient energy conversion types like RTG, RTPV (Radioisotope thermophotovoltaic) and RTIGs (Radioisotope Thermionic emission Generators) are assembled. In the future, four main trends for radioisotope batteries include the better safety and reliability, the higher output power and power matching, the micro/nano integration and module combination of battery structure, the production of radioisotope source. We believe that the research and application of radioisotope batteries will be much attractive with the break through of these aspects made by academic and industrial world.

Researches on the performance of GaN-PIN betavoltaic nuclear battery

Nuclear battery has lots of advantages such as small volume, longevity, environal stability and so on, therefore, it was widely used in aerospace, deep-sea , polar region, heart pacemaker, micro-electromotor and other fields etc. The application of nuclear battery and the development of its materials promote each other. In this paper the development and the latest research progress of nuclear battery materials has been introduced from the view of radioisotope, electric energy conversion and encapsulation. And the current and potential applications of the nuclear battery are also summarized.

For the 63NiO-Si heterojunction betavoltaic nuclear battery, the energy deposition of the energy conversion material itself was simulated by Monte Carlo simulation, and the structure of the 63NiO-Si heterojunction was optimized based on the theoretical calculation results. When the thickness of 63NiO is 4 μm and the doping concentration of Si is 1 × 1015 cm−3, the short-circuit current density, open-circuit voltage, fill factor, and maximum output power density of the nuclear battery are 1.22 μA · cm−2, 3.17 V, 0.95, 3.67 μW · cm−2. In addition, the output performance of 63Ni/NiO-Si heterojunction betavoltaic nuclear cell was calculated in this study. Under the condition that the activity of the radioactive source and the thickness of NiO(63NiO) are the same in the two structures, the proposed structure (63NiO-Si) has greatly improved the output performance of the nuclear battery by reducing the energy lost from radioactive source self-absorption.

Design and performance study of four-layer radio-voltaic and dual-effect nuclear batteries based on γ-ray

The fabrication and experimental research of a GaN-Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (GaN-PIN) betavoltaic nuclear battery driven by an 63Ni radioisotope source and an SiC-Schottky betavoltaic nuclear battery driven by an 147Pm radioisotope source are introduced. The self-absorption effects of radioisotope sources (63Ni, 147Pm) are explored and analyzed by Monte Carlo simulation. The SiC-Schottky and GaN-PIN betavoltaic cells were fabricated, where the GaN-PIN devices include different areas, absorption layer thicknesses, and electrode structures. And the measured I–V results show that the power density of the GaN-PIN nuclear battery can exceed 4.3 nW/cm2, the open-circuit voltage can reach 1.25 V, and the energy conversion efficiency can reach 2.3%. And for the SiC-Schottky betavoltaic battery, the maximum output power and energy conversion efficiency are 0.67 pW/cm2 and 0.024%, respectively.

Nuclear batteries, a novel energy device in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), have garnered significant attention from academia and industry due to their promising application prospects. They possess high energy density and reliable operation without human intervention and offer unique advantages in the case of long-term stable power supply. Among these, thermal conversion nuclear batteries (RTGs) represent the most mature technology and the earliest application, while betavoltaic nuclear batteries have entered commercialization. Challenges in betavoltaic nuclear batteries research include energy wastage due to the self-absorption effect of radioactive sources, low conversion efficiency, and significant radiation damage to transducer devices. These issues are attributable not only to the inherent properties of the radioactive source but also to the material and structural design of transducers. A 3D interface structure design scheme based on the wide bandgap semiconductor material GaN and the radioactive isotope 63Ni nuclear microbatteries is proposed. In the scheme, Geant4 and COMSOL Multiphysics were used to simulate the GaN-based betavoltaic nuclear battery of 63Ni source, and the PN junction 3D interface structure of the transducer was designed and optimized. The effects of the surface area, number of micropillars, thickness, and doping concentration of each region on the battery performance were analyzed. Results indicate that with P- and N- region thicknesses and doping concentrations at 0.1, 9.9 µm, 1 × 1018, and 1 × 1014 cm−3, respectively, the nuclear battery can achieve a conversion efficiency of 7.57%, a short-circuit current density of 0.3959 µA/cm2, an open-circuit voltage of 2.3074 V, and maximum output power of 0.7795 µW/cm2. In addition, discussion regarding the surface area and quantity of P-layer micropillars confirms the hypothesis that these variables are positively correlated with the output performance of the transducer.

Nuclear battery is a potential energy generator because of its long lifetime, stable output performance, high energy density and environmental resistance. It converts the energy of high energy particles into electric energy. The main constituent parts of nuclear batteries are radioisotope and semiconductor energy converter. Diamond is ultra-wide band gap semiconductor with high carrier mobilities and high chemical inertness. More importantly, it is an excellent radiation resistance material. Therefore, diamond is an ideal material for the fabrication of nuclear batteries. This paper reviews the development status of diamond-based nuclear batteries. The alpha-voltaic, beta-voltaic and gamma-voltaic nuclear batteries based on diamond Schottky junction and p–n junction are illustrated in this review. In addition, an outlook on future research of diamond-based nuclear batteries is also provided.

Radioluminescent nuclear battery is a type of energy conversion device that can be miniaturized, which has the ability to convert nuclear energy into light energy, and again into electrical energy. To explore the response relationship between the phosphor layer structure and the electrical performance of radioluminescent nuclear battery, the physical model was established to research the deposition energy distribution by using Monte Carlo method. The radioluminescence spectra and current-voltage characteristic curves were used to investigate the optical and electrical properties. Through a comprehensive comparison of single plane layer, double plane layer, and V groove layer structures, the simulated results are consistent with experimental results. The results indicate that the Monte Carlo simulation is applicable to analysis of the phosphor layer structure of radioluminescent nuclear battery. Additionally, the results also show that the structure type and physical parameters of the phosphor layer have great influence on the energy deposition. A suitable phosphor layer structure can provide a new route to exhibit higher energy conversion efficiency as well as improving the matching degree between the range of radioactive particles and the thickness of the phosphor layer.

Performance study of GaN-based betavoltaic nuclear batteries with 3D interfaces

Highly luminescent CsPbBr3 perovskite quantum dots (QDs) are very attractive for applications in power-generating devices. The CsPbBr3 QD solution and its corresponding solid films were satisfactorily prepared. The obtained QDs were characterized by various techniques such as transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, and photoluminescence and radioluminescence spectroscopy. The performance of the CsPbBr3 QD films as an energy conversion material in radioluminescent nuclear batteries was analyzed and discussed. The output performance of different nuclear batteries based on CsPbBr3 QD films was compared and the feasibility and advantages of using them as radioluminescent layers were investigated. On this basis, a long-term equivalent service behavior study was conducted to evaluate the irradiation stability of the CsPbBr3 radioluminescent layer and predict the service life of this type of nuclear battery. The distribution state and penetration depth of hydrogen ions in the films were analyzed and evaluated using physics simulation software. Optical and electrical characteristics confirmed that this perovskite material could offer an efficient, stable, and scalable solution for energy conversion and photoelectric detection in the future.

Betavoltaic (BV) batteries are regarded as appealing power sources due to their high energy densities and long lifetimes. However, the low efficiency and maximum output power density of conventional BV batteries due to the self-absorption effect of radioactive sources, which consist of separate beta-radioactive sources and semiconductor absorbers, limit their applications. In this work, we optimized and compared six 63NiO-related heterojunction nuclear batteries utilizing Monte Carlo software Geant4 and finite element analysis software COMSOL Multiphysics. The 63NiO-related heterojunction nuclear batteries integrate beta-radioactive sources and semiconductor absorbers to overcome the shortcomings of conventional BV batteries. Furthermore, we proposed a parallel connection structure utilizing graphene electrode layer to connect two 63NiO/GaP heterojunctions based on the optimal one from the six heterojunctions in order to maximize the maximum output power density. The total energy conversion efficiency is 2.68% and the maximum output power density is of the parallel connection nuclear battery. Finally, we investigated the time-related performance of the parallel connection structure nuclear battery within 200 years. It shows that the maximum output power density decreases from in the beginning to at 200 years.

This work investigated the preparation and optimization of phosphor layer for radioluminescent nuclear battery, and analyzed the property change of the phosphor after irradiation. ZnS:(Cu, Al) with grain size of 5 μm was selected as the phosphor material, and AlGaInP semiconductor was used as the photovoltaic unit. Monte Carlo modeling was used to simulate energy deposition, absorbed dose, penetration of β particles in the phosphor. The optimized coupling scheme of radioisotope sources and phosphor layer was obtained based on comparison particle penetration depth and the output power of radioluminescent nuclear battery. The phosphor layer with 60Co γ-radiation enhanced the luminescence property up to 50% at the radiation dose of 871 kGy, which is considered as an optimized method of phosphor layer preparation. The radiation of 10 MeV electron was conducted to study the degradation based on the microscopic lattice characteristics, morphological changes, optical and electrical properties. Phosphors have excellent radiation resistance. The output power of nuclear batteries has only declined by 43% even when electron radiation dose reaches 8.56 MGy. The prospect for utilizing ZnS:(Cu, Al) phosphor as radiant energy conversion materials in nuclear battery was also discussed. Results provided an effective guideline for predict the service conditions of radioluminescent nuclear battery.

The increasing challenges of energy sustainability, particularly for applications with limited access to conventional energy sources, have spurred interest in nuclear batteries as a viable, long-lasting alternative. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of nuclear batteries, their energy sources, design components, and energy conversion mechanisms. Nuclear batteries derive their energy from radioisotopes and, due to their durability and high energy density, offer a range of applications from space exploration to medical devices. The study categorizes various radioactive materials based on emission type, lifetime, and energy density, and explores their impact on battery performance and longevity. Energy conversion mechanisms, including ion-pair generation, thermoelectric effects, and photon-intermediated systems, are analyzed for efficiency and suitability for various applications. In addition, shielding materials, such as alloys and polymers, essential for safety in various environments are discussed, and risk assessment models for ensuring operational safety are examined. Concluding with practical examples, this review highlights the transformative role of nuclear batteries in fields such as space science, medicine, and industry, and positions them as essential for powering future technologies.