Abstract
ABSTRACT A growing number of three-dimensional (3D)-printing processes have been applied to tissue engineering. This paper presents a state-of-the-art study of 3D-printing technologies for tissue-engineering applications, with particular focus on the development of a computer-aided scaffold design system; the direct 3D printing of functionally graded scaffolds; the modeling of selective laser sintering (SLS) and fused deposition modeling (FDM) processes; the indirect additive manufacturing of scaffolds, with both micro and macro features; the development of a bioreactor; and 3D/4D bioprinting. Technological limitations will be discussed so as to highlight the possibility of future improvements for new 3D-printing methodologies for tissue engineering.
Highlights
The concept of tissue engineering was formalized in 1993 when Langer and Vacanti published a historical milestone paper in Science, in which the characteristics and applications of biodegradable three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds were first detailed [1]
In the decade following the publication of this paper (1993– 2002), a number of conventional manufacturing techniques were applied to fabricating porous 3D scaffolds, such as fiber bonding, phase separation, solvent casting, particulate leaching, membrane lamination, molding, and foaming [3]
Researchers proposed the use of 3D-printing methods to fabricate customized scaffolds with controlled pore size and pore structure [4,5,6]
Summary
The concept of tissue engineering was formalized in 1993 when Langer and Vacanti published a historical milestone paper in Science, in which the characteristics and applications of biodegradable three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds were first detailed [1]. In the decade following the publication of this paper (1993– 2002), a number of conventional manufacturing techniques were applied to fabricating porous 3D scaffolds, such as fiber bonding, phase separation, solvent casting, particulate leaching, membrane lamination, molding, and foaming [3]. All these methods share a major drawback: They do not permit enough control of scaffold architecture, pore network, and pore size, giving rise to inconsistent and less-than-ideal 3D scaffolds. We present our past and current work in this field, and give our perspective on the future of this area as it moves into its third decade (2013–2022)
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