Depth of processing, retrieval cues, and uniqueness of encoding as factors in recall

Abstract

Three experiments were conducted to examine the relations between retrieval and encoding in a levels of processing framework. Retrieval conditions were manipulated in the following ways: (a) Retrieval cues were either present or absent, (b) Cues were either unique for each target word or were shared among targets, and (c) The cue and target either did or did not form a congruent, meaningful unit. It was found that the beneficial effects of cueing, uniqueness and congruence were greater at deeper levels of encoding. It is proposed that deeper encoding establishes a higher ceiling on potential memory performance. The extent to which the potential is realized depends on the degree to which retrieval conditions recreate the encoding context that uniquely specifies the target item.