Dependence of DNA–Protein Cross-Linking via Guanine Oxidation upon Local DNA Sequence As Studied by Restriction Endonuclease Inhibition

Abstract

Oxidative damage plays a causative role in many diseases, and DNA-protein cross-linking is one important consequence of such damage. It is known that GG and GGG sites are particularly prone to one-electron oxidation, and here we examined how the local DNA sequence influences the formation of DNA-protein cross-links induced by guanine oxidation. Oxidative DNA-protein cross-linking was induced between DNA and histone protein via the flash quench technique, a photochemical method that selectively oxidizes the guanine base in double-stranded DNA. An assay based on restriction enzyme cleavage was developed to detect the cross-linking in plasmid DNA. Following oxidation of pBR322 DNA by flash quench, several restriction enzymes (PpuMI, BamHI, EcoRI) were then used to probe the plasmid surface for the expected damage at guanine sites. These three endonucleases were strongly inhibited by DNA-protein cross-linking, whereas the AT-recognizing enzyme AseI was unaffected in its cleavage. These experiments also reveal the susceptibility of different guanine sites toward oxidative cross-linking. The percent inhibition observed for the endonucleases, and their pBR322 cleavage sites, decreased in the order: PpuMI (5'-GGGTCCT-3' and 5'-AGGACCC-3') > BamHI (5'-GGATCC-3') > EcoRI (5'-GAATTC-3'), a trend consistent with the observed and predicted tendencies for guanine to undergo one-electron oxidation: 5'-GGG-3' > 5'-GG-3' > 5'-GA-3'. Thus, it appears that in mixed DNA sequences the guanine sites most vulnerable to oxidative cross-linking are those that are easiest to oxidize. These results further indicate that equilibration of the electron hole in the plasmid DNA occurs on a time scale faster than that of cross-linking.