Democracy in Vietnam: a matter of class consciousness?

Abstract

Democracy is a Western concept without roots in Asia in general and Vietnam in particular. There are several reasons why Vietnam might be a prospective democracy: (1) its capitalist economy is worth US$371 billion in 2022; (2) the number of civil society associations has risen in Vietnam since 1990. There are increasing signs that space for civil society is opening up; and (3) there are isolated cases where democratic actions have occurred in Vietnam. This article explains why democracy faces significant challenges in Vietnamese late modernity. It uses a seven-question democratic framework to determine the existence of democracy in Southeast Asia. Framework for analysis: The framework for analyzing democracy in Southeast Asia with seven questions is as follows: (1) Are there regularly held elections that are free and fair in the country? (2) Are there external or foreign observers of the elections? (3) Are the ballot boxes stuffed openly or secretly? (4) Are the voters bribed in any way before or during the elections? (5) Is the vote secret? (6) Are there secret police operating beyond the law? and (7) Are there opposition parties that can freely take part in elections with low barriers to entry?