Abstract
While graphene and other graphene-based materials are promising for electrochemical sensors, developing a simple synthesis method and understanding how their structure affects their performance remains challenging. This study introduces a straightforward method to produce highly defective graphene-based nanomaterials (BP-GNMs) from banana pulp (BP) biomass. These BP-GNMs are suitable for efficiently detecting purine bases (xanthine (X), hypoxanthine (Hx), and uric acid (UA)) simultaneously using electrochemical techniques. The synthesis process involves heating at 180 °C in air. Compared to BP-derived graphene quantum dots (BP-GQDs) made using a hydrothermal method, BP-GNMs exhibit significantly better electrochemical activity. This is shown by well-defined, separated peaks with high currents in electrochemical measurements of the purine bases. In this study, we compared the physicochemical properties of BP-GNMs and BP-GQDs using various techniques like FESEM, TEM, XPS, UV–Vis, Raman, and FTIR spectroscopy. Our analysis revealed the formation of layered nanomaterials based on graphene, with sizes ranging from 400 mm to 10 μm. These nanomaterials exhibited a balanced ratio of sp2-bonded carbon (sp2C) to sp3-bonded carbon (sp3C). This balanced ratio is attributed to the presence of both defective basal planes (containing sp2C) and edge planes (containing sp3C) on the BP-GNMs. The heterogeneity on the surface in terms of edge and basal planes of the materials was viewed using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) technique with ferrocene-carboxylic acid as a redox probe. As a practical application of this low-cost biomass material, an efficient and separation-free simultaneous electrochemical sensing of X, Hx and UA in various fishes and human urine samples were demonstrated with a recovery of 100±2%.
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