Deep learning for automatic detection of cephalometric landmarks on lateral cephalometric radiographs using the Mask Region-based Convolutional Neural Network: a pilot study

Abstract

ObjectiveWe examined the effectiveness and feasibility of the Mask Region-based Convolutional Neural Network (Mask R-CNN) for automatic detection of cephalometric landmarks on lateral cephalometric radiographs (LCRs). Study DesignIn total, 400 LCRs, each with 19 manually identified landmarks, were collected. Of this total, 320 images were randomly selected as the training dataset for Mask R-CNN, and the remaining 80 images were used for testing the automatic detection of the 19 cephalometric landmarks, for a total of 1520 landmarks. Detection rate, average error, and detection accuracy rate were calculated to assess Mask R-CNN performance. ResultsOf the 1520 landmarks, 1494 were detected, for a detection rate of 98.29%. The average error, or linear deviation distance between the detected points and the originally marked points of each detected landmark, ranged from 0.56 to 9.51 mm, with an average of 2.19 mm. For detection accuracy rate, 649 landmarks (43.44%) had a linear deviation distance less than 1mm, 1020 (68.27%) less than 2mm, and 1281 (85.74%) less than 4mm in deviation from the manually marked point. The average detection time was 1.48 seconds per image. ConclusionsDeep learning Mask R-CNN shows promise in enhancing cephalometric analysis by automating landmark detection on LCRs, addressing the limitations of manual analysis and demonstrating effectiveness and feasibility.