Abstract
BackgroundRapid urbanization in semi-arid regions necessitates greater cooling, humidifying, and shading services from urban trees, but maximizing these services requires an exact understanding of their association with forest characteristics and background street and weather conditions.MethodsHere, horizontal and vertical air cooling, soil cooling, shading, and humidifying effects were measured for 605 trees from 152 plots in Changchun. Additionally, weather conditions (Tair, relative humidity, and light intensity), forest characteristics (tree height, diameter at breast height (DBH), under-branch height, canopy size, tree density, and taxonomic family of trees) and background conditions (percentage of building, road, green space, water, and building height, building distance to measured trees) were determined for three urban-rural gradients for ring road development, urban settlement history, and forest types. Multiple analysis of variance and regression analysis were used to find the urban-rural changes, while redundancy ordination and variation partitioning were used for decoupling the complex associations among microclimate regulations, forest characteristics, background street and weather conditions.ResultsOur results show that horizontal cooling and humidifying differences between canopy shade and full sunshine were <4.5 °C and <9.4%, respectively; while vertical canopy cooling was 1.4 °C, and soil cooling was observed in most cases (peak at 1.4 °C). Pooled urban-rural data analysis showed non-monological changes in all microclimate-regulating parameters, except for a linear increase in light interception by the canopy (r2 = 0.45) from urban center to rural regions. Together with the microclimate regulating trends, linear increases were observed in tree density, Salicaceae percentage, Tair, light intensity outside forests, tree distance to surrounding buildings, and greenspace percentage. Redundancy ordination demonstrated that weather differences were mainly responsible for the microclimate regulation variation we observed (unique explanatory power, 65.4%), as well as background conditions (12.1%), and forest characteristics (7.7%).DiscussionIn general, horizontal cooling, shading, and humidifying effects were stronger in dry, hot, and sunny weather. The effects were stronger in areas with more buildings of relatively lower height, a higher abundance of Ulmaceae, and a lower percentage of Leguminosae and Betulaceae. Larger trees were usually associated with a larger cooling area (a smaller difference per one unit distance from the measured tree). Given uncontrollable weather conditions, our findings highlighted street canyon and forest characteristics that are important in urban microclimate regulation. This paper provides a management strategy for maximizing microclimate regulation using trees, and methodologically supports the uncoupling of the complex association of microclimate regulations in fast urbanization regions.
Highlights
Microclimate changes induced by urbanization in central urban regions have highlighted the importance of multiple microclimate regulation functions performed by trees, including horizontal cooling, air humidification, soil cooling between sunny and shady sites, vertical cooling adjustment, and radiation interception (Sanusi et al, 2016; Yan et al, 2012; Zhang et al, 2017a)
Comparing urban centers to rural regions, we found non-monological changes in five out of the six microclimate regulating parameters that described microclimate regulating functions, which were mainly controlled by weather conditions (Tair, relative humidity (RH), and light intensity) rather than forest characteristics or background conditions of street canyons, land use configuration, and urbanization intensities
Our study found that background conditions made the second largest contribution to variations in microclimate regulation, and the explanatory power of these variables was one-sixth to one-third that of weather conditions (Table 2 and Fig. 7)
Summary
Microclimate changes induced by urbanization in central urban regions (e.g., the heat island effect) have highlighted the importance of multiple microclimate regulation functions performed by trees, including horizontal cooling, air humidification, soil cooling between sunny and shady sites, vertical cooling adjustment, and radiation interception (Sanusi et al, 2016; Yan et al, 2012; Zhang et al, 2017a). One hypothesis focuses on forest characteristics and suggests that the nature of the forest itself largely determines microclimate regulation, and that characteristics such as tree species (Abreu-Harbich, Labaki & Matzarakis, 2015; Sanusi et al, 2017; Shahidan et al, 2010), tree size, and community features (Martini, Biondi & Batista, 2017; Zhang et al, 2017a), or proper configuration of trees (Bajsanski, Stojakovic & Jovanovic, 2016; Calcerano & Martinelli, 2016; Zhao, Sailor & Wentz, 2018a; Zhao, Wentz & Murray, 2017), could maximize urban forest service functions (Kendal, Dobbs & Lohr, 2014; Xiao et al, 2016b; Zhao et al, 2018b) Another hypothesis focuses on weather and suggests that instantaneous weather conditions are important in shaping the microclimate regulatory functions of trees, and that the general tendency is that dry and sunny weather accompanies stronger regulatory functions (Norton et al, 2015; Zhang et al, 2017a).
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