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Abstract
Cyclic imines (CIs) are emerging marine lipophilic toxins (MLTs) occurring in microalgae and shellfish worldwide. The present research aimed to study CIs in mussels farmed in the Adriatic Sea (Italy) during the period 2014–2015. Twenty-eight different compounds belonging to spirolides (SPXs), gymnodimines (GYMs), pinnatoxins (PnTXs) and pteriatoxins (PtTXs) were analyzed by the official method for MLTs in 139 mussel samples collected along the Marche coast. Compounds including 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13-desMe SPX C) and 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide C (13,19-didesMe SPX C) were detected in 86% of the samples. The highest levels were generally reported in the first half of the year reaching 29.2 µg kg−1 in January/March with a decreasing trend until June. GYM A, for the first time reported in Italian mussels, was found in 84% of the samples, reaching the highest concentration in summer (12.1 µg kg−1). GYM A and SPXs, submitted to tissue distribution studies, showed the tendency to accumulate mostly in mussel digestive glands. Even if SPX levels in mussels were largely below the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reference of 400 μg SPXs kg−1, most of the samples contained CIs for the large part of the year. Since chronic toxicity data are still missing, monitoring is surely recommended.
Highlights
Cyclic imines (CIs) are a group of marine lipophilic toxins (MLTs) originating from seawater phytoplankton, from dinogflagellates
Spirolides (SPXs), gymnodimines (GYMs), pinnatoxins (PnTXs), pteriatoxins (PtTXs) are the major molecular groups belonging to CIs and the ones mostly detected in algae and mussels (Figure 1) [1]
As already reported by Gerssen et al [57] the EU-Harmonized Standard Operating Procedure (EU-SOP) for lipophilic marine biotoxins [56] enables us to analyze the CIs in the same analytical run used for the regulated MLTs
Summary
Cyclic imines (CIs) are a group of marine lipophilic toxins (MLTs) originating from seawater phytoplankton, from dinogflagellates. Other toxins are included in the CI group: prorocentrolides, spiro-prorocentrimine [1], symbioimines and portimine [2,3]. The cyclic imine moiety in the chemical structure of all these macrocyclic compounds is responsible for their fast acting toxicity in mice after intraperitoneal administration. The neurotoxic effects they induce are mostly a result of their specific interaction with the muscle and their neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors [4]. CIs were discovered during the last 25 years because of their interference with the mouse bioassay for regulated MLTs in bivalve molluscs (okadaic acid, dinophysistoxins, pectenotoxins, yessotoxins, and azaspiracids) [5]
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