Abstract
Abstract Growing global sales of electric vehicles (EVs) are raising concerns about the reverse logistics challenge of transporting damaged, defective and waste lithium ion battery (LIB) packs. The European Union Battery Directive stipulates that 50% of LIBs must be recycled and EV manufacturers are responsible for collection, treatment and recycling. The International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road requirement to transport damaged or defective LIB packs in approved explosion proof steel containers imposes expensive certification. Further, the physical weight and volume of LIB packaging increases transport costs of damaged or defective packs as part of a complete recycling or repurposing strategy. Cryogenic flash freezing (CFF) removes the possibility of thermal runaway in LIBs even in extreme abuse conditions. Meaning damaged or defective LIBs may be transported safely whilst cryogenically frozen. Herein, LIBs are cycled until 20% capacity fade to establish that CFF does not affect electrical performance (energy capacity and impedance) during ageing. This is demonstrated on two different cell chemistries and form factors. The potential to remanufacture or reuse cells/modules subjected to CFF supports circular economy principles through extending useful life and reducing raw material usage. Thereby improving the environmental sustainability of transitioning from internal combustion engines to EVs.
Highlights
Market adoption of hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles containing lithium ion batteries (LIB) continue to accelerate; for example over 2 million plug-in vehicles were sold worldwide in 2018, adding to the 5 million already on the road [1]
The standard error is the sample standard deviation divided by the square of the root of the sample size
Since the cryogenically frozen cells and the control group were both measured at the same state of charge (SOC), the authors assert that the SOC variation does not detract from the findings reported, that is to say the flash cryogenic freezing does not affect the internal resistance of Dow Kokam (DK) 5Ah and Panasonic 3Ah cells
Summary
Market adoption of hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles containing lithium ion batteries (LIB) continue to accelerate; for example over 2 million plug-in vehicles were sold worldwide in 2018, adding to the 5 million already on the road [1]. A recent study confirmed this finding on 18,650 lithium-ion cells after a 14-day cryogenic freezing period [22] This solution would facilitate the potential repair or remanufacturing of individual cells and modules, prolonging the useful life, as well as support second life applications for LIBs [23]; improving the environmental sustainability of EVs. In this paper, for the first time, the authors present the capacity degradation of cryogenically frozen LiBs cycled over several months compared to LiBs that was not frozen. This initial study aims to establish if cells that have been cryogenically frozen age and degrade normally when cycled over several months, in order to establish if there are any effects of the life expectancy of LIBs
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