Abstract
Abstract The notion of cyberwar has held a central place in technology and security scholarship for several decades. With the continued aggression of modern government hacking operations, cyberwar has again emerged as a popular frame. This chapter shows how the present reality, though, has strayed far from the original concept and how a closer examination of state activities suggests a scope for hacking that is different and more limited than many expected. Drawing on case studies, this chapter shows how virtually all hacking activities fall short of war. They are instead variants of espionage, sabotage, and subversion. This refined framing offers important implications for deterrence, coercion, and operational practice.
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