Critical review of life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles: A lifespan perspective

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the ideal energy storage device for electric vehicles, and their environmental, economic, and resource risks assessment are urgent issues. Therefore, the life cycle assessment (LCA) of LIBs in the entire lifespan is becoming a hotspot. This study first reviews the basic framework and types, standards and methods, and technical challenges of LCA. Then, the cradle-to-cradle LCA framework for LIBs is constructed, and the technical route of LCA in the stages of battery production, usage, secondary utilization, and material recycling are analyzed in detail. Finally, the carbon footprint in the battery production and recycling stages is conducted under the current and future energy mixes. The results show that battery production significantly impacts the environment and resources, and battery materials recycling and remanufacturing present considerable environmental and economic values. Moreover, the greening of electricity is critical to reducing carbon emissions during the battery life cycle. • The framework, methods, and technical challenges of LCA are comprehensively reviewed. • The cradle-to-cradle LCA framework for lithium-ion batteries is constructed. • Carbon emissions during battery production and recycling are analyzed. • Carbon emissions during battery production under different energy mixes are investigated.