Cranial electrical stimulation (CES): Comparison with cranial nerve stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation and transcranial low voltage pulsed electromagnetic fields

Abstract

Cranial electrical stimulation (CES) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technology that uses a low intensity alternating current (AC) applied to the head through one or more electrodes. CES variants using a range of frequencies and other stimulation parameters have been used clinically and in research for approximately 100 years. CES has long been used to treat mild to moderate depression, anxiety, insomnia, pain, and other conditions, mostly outside the mainstream of psychiatric and neurological treatment.