Abstract
Despite international advancements in gender equality across a variety of societal domains, the underrepresentation of girls and women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) related fields persists. In this study, we explored the possibility that the sex difference in mathematics anxiety contributes to this disparity. More specifically, we tested a number of predictions from the prominent gender stratification model, which is the leading psychological theory of cross-national patterns of sex differences in mathematics anxiety and performance. To this end, we analyzed data from 761,655 15-year old students across 68 nations who participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Most importantly and contra predictions, we showed that economically developed and more gender equal countries have a lower overall level of mathematics anxiety, and yet a larger national sex difference in mathematics anxiety relative to less developed countries. Further, although relatively more mothers work in STEM fields in more developed countries, these parents valued, on average, mathematical competence more in their sons than their daughters. The proportion of mothers working in STEM was unrelated to sex differences in mathematics anxiety or performance. We propose that the gender stratification model fails to account for these national patterns and that an alternative model is needed. In the discussion, we suggest how an interaction between socio-cultural values and sex-specific psychological traits can better explain these patterns. We also discuss implications for policies aiming to increase girls’ STEM participation.
Highlights
Girls have had fewer educational opportunities than boys, especially within the domains of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)[1]
Our first analysis tests if it is the case that higher levels of gender equality and general development are associated with higher levels of mathematics anxiety
Because we found that gender equality is related to sex differences in mathematics anxiety, there may be a relation between power distance and the sex difference in mathematics anxiety as well
Summary
Girls have had fewer educational opportunities than boys, especially within the domains of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)[1]. The exact reasons for this disparity in participation are currently unknown; while some researchers have vigorously argued that girls are still negatively affected by gender-specific stereotypes [2,3,4,5], others have argued that most structural barriers keeping girls out of STEM have been removed [6] Apart from these social factors, a variety of psychological factors may contribute to the avoidance of these academic domains in general, as well as contribute to the continued underrepresentation of women in these fields (e.g., [7, 8]). We do not distinguish between the concepts “sex” and “gender” as some social scientists do, and both these terms could be used interchangeably in the context of our paper.)
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