Correction: Hong et al. Applying SEM, Exploratory SEM, and Bayesian SEM to Personality Assessments. Psych 2024, 6, 111–134

The current article compares the use of exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) as an alternative to confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) models in personality research. We compare model fit, factor distinctiveness, and criterion associations of factors derived from ESEM and CFA models. In Sample 1 (n = 336) participants completed the NEO-FFI, the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form, and the Creative Domains Questionnaire. In Sample 2 (n = 425) participants completed the Big Five Inventory and the depression and anxiety scales of the General Health Questionnaire. ESEM models provided better fit than CFA models, but ESEM solutions did not uniformly meet cutoff criteria for model fit. Factor scores derived from ESEM and CFA models correlated highly (.91 to .99), suggesting the additional factor loadings within the ESEM model add little in defining latent factor content. Lastly, criterion associations of each personality factor in CFA and ESEM models were near identical in both inventories. We provide an example of how ESEM and CFA might be used together in improving personality assessment.

Despite the importance of demonstrating and evaluating how structural equation modeling (SEM), exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), and Bayesian structural equation modeling (BSEM) work simultaneously, research comparing these analytic techniques is limited with few studies conducted to systematically compare them to each other using correlated-factor, hierarchical, and bifactor models of personality. In this study, we evaluate the performance of SEM, ESEM, and BSEM across correlated-factor, hierarchical, and bifactor structures and multiple estimation techniques (maximum likelihood, robust weighted least squares, and Bayesian estimation) to test the internal structure of personality. Results across correlated-factor, hierarchical, and bifactor models highlighted the importance of controlling for scale coarseness and allowing small off-target loadings when using maximum likelihood (ML) and robust weighted least squares estimation (WLSMV) and including informative priors (IP) when using Bayesian estimation. In general, Bayesian-IP and WLSMV ESEM models provided noticeably best model fits. This study is expected to serve as a guide for professionals and applied researchers, identify the most appropriate ways to represent the structure of personality, and provide templates for future research into personality and other multidimensional representations of psychological constructs. We provide Mplus code for conducting the demonstrated analyses in the online supplement.

This research aimed to investigate the structural validity of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen (DTDD) within the Indonesian cultural context. At the preliminary stage, content validity and response process were assessed as part of a systematic translation verification to ensure item clarity and conceptual relevance. Even though satisfactory performance was reported, items 3 and 10 required further cultural refinement. Structural models were also tested using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling (ESEM). The results showed that the three-factor structures of Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy were supported as the most conceptually sound and statistically stable option. The bifactor solution reported interpretive limitations, such as low item loadings even though alternative models suggested acceptable fit. Subsequently, ESEM captured subtle cross-loadings, stating the psychological overlap between traits. These results supported the suitability of DTDD and offered an enhanced understanding of the structural complexity of dark traits to strengthen the relevance of cross-cultural personality assessment.

Factor structure and psychometric properties of the French versions of the Big Five Inventory-2 Short (BFI-2-S) and Extra-Short (BFI-2-XS) Forms.

We examined measurement invariance and age-related robustness of a short 15-item Big Five Inventory (BFI–S) of personality dimensions, which is well suited for applications in large-scale multidisciplinary surveys. The BFI–S was assessed in three different interviewing conditions: computer-assisted or paper-assisted face-to-face interviewing, computer-assisted telephone interviewing, and a self-administered questionnaire. Randomized probability samples from a large-scale German panel survey and a related probability telephone study were used in order to test method effects on self-report measures of personality characteristics across early, middle, and late adulthood. Exploratory structural equation modeling was used in order to test for measurement invariance of the five-factor model of personality trait domains across different assessment methods. For the short inventory, findings suggest strong robustness of self-report measures of personality dimensions among young and middle-aged adults. In old age, telephone interviewing was associated with greater distortions in reliable personality assessment. It is concluded that the greater mental workload of telephone interviewing limits the reliability of self-report personality assessment. Face-to-face surveys and self-administrated questionnaire completion are clearly better suited than phone surveys when personality traits in age-heterogeneous samples are assessed.

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991, 2007) is among the most important personality and psychopathology assessment tools. However, its psychometric properties in the Spanish-speaking prison population have not yet been studied. We aimed to explore the factor structure of the Spanish adaptation of the PAI (Ortiz-Tallo et al., 2011) in an Ecuadorian sample of 811 convicted men using exploratory structural equation modeling, with the further objective of confirming its internal consistency. Hoelzle and Meyer (2009) identified three dimensions that are highly congruent across samples: general distress, elevated mood and dominance, and substance abuse and psychopathy. Taking these findings and the internalizing and externalizing dimensions (Ruiz & Edens, 2008) as a theoretical basis, three- and two-factor models were tested for the 22 scales and 11 clinical scales, respectively. We also tested four- and three-factor models that grouped the scales related to substance abuse as an independent factor, leaving intact the distribution presented by the remaining scales in the previous models. Although the original models showed a good fit, the 4- and 3-factor models obtained significantly better fit indexes. With respect to reliability, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from .49 to .89. This version shows acceptable psychometric properties in correctional settings.

The Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (GZTS) is a widely used personality inventory; however, its length (300 items) poses a significant drawback in many assessment contexts. This paper presents two studies that employed Item Response Theory (IRT) to develop a psychometrically robust short form of the GZTS (GZTS-SF), specifically designed for university students. Study 1 involved 850 students who completed the full version of the GZTS. Using the 2-Parameter Logistic (2PL) IRT model, items were selected based on optimal discrimination and difficulty parameters, ensuring comprehensive coverage across all ten GZTS traits. Items exhibiting differential item functioning (DIF) across gender were removed to enhance measurement fairness.Study 2 evaluated the resulting 100-item GZTS-SF using a separate sample of 400 university students. The short form demonstrated reliability coefficients that were comparable to or better than those reported for existing short forms, high correlations with the corresponding full-scale GZTS scores, and strong convergent and discriminant validity when assessed against the Big Five Inventory (BFI). Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) further supported the ten-factor structure of the GZTS-SF. Overall, the GZTS-SF offers a more efficient yet psychometrically sound method for assessing the ten GZTS traits, making it highly suitable for research and applied contexts involving university populations. KEY WORDS: response theory; short form development; personality assessment; psychometric evaluation, GZTS Copyright ©2025. The Authors. Published by Journal of Indonesian Psychological Science (JIPS). This is an open access article under the CC BY NO SA. Link: Creative Commons — Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International — CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

We examined the operationalization of psychopathy through a multi-method framework in a community sample of 250 participants, who were oversampled for psychopathic traits. Psychopathy was operationalized through clinician-rated measures, including the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version and the Comprehensive Assessment of Psychopathic Personality (CAPP): Symptom Rating Scale, as well as the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure and the CAPP-Self Report. Using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling and controlling for self-report and clinical rating method variances, a four-factor model of psychopathy emerged with factors representing Boldness, Disinhibition, Affective, and Interpersonal traits. We examined the validity of the four-factor model by investigating associations between each factor and conceptually relevant scales, and the results generally supported construct validity. The Interpersonal factor was considered to contribute to the model theoretically in the factor analysis, but the incremental validity of this factor above and beyond the Boldness and Affective factors was not supported by available criterion measures.

Investigating the Spectra constellations of the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) model for personality disorders based on empirical data from a community sample

BackgroundThe HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised (HEXACO-PI-R), available in 200-, 100-, and 60-item versions, has become one of the most frequently applied measurement tools for the assessment of basic personality dimensions.Participants and procedureIn this study we examined the Polish versions of the HEXACO-60 and the HEXACO-100 inventories in a community sample of 522 individuals (aged 16-75, M = 32.02, SD = 14.15, 56.3% female). We verified the factor validity of both inventories with exploratory structural equation modeling. Additionally, we tested a six-factor solution on the HEXACO-60 items with principal axis extraction and we compared a factor matrix of the Polish adaptation of the HEXACO-100 facets with the factor matrix of the original version of the HEXACO-100 facets in an exploratory factor comparison analysis. We analyzed correlations between HEXACO domains and various models of personality traits, including the Big Two, Big Six, Big Five, and 10 Big Five as-pects.ResultsInternal consistency reliability coefficients for scales and subscales were satisfactory. The analyses supported the six-factor structure of the inventories and the results of correlation analyses were consistent with expectations.ConclusionsThe results indicate that the Polish versions of the HEXACO-60 and the HEXACO-100 inventories are reliable and valid in-struments for measuring basic personality traits in the HEXACO model.

Abstract. The study examined the psychometric properties of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R, UK edition) in a large European sample of civil airline pilots. The NEO PI-R is a comprehensive and robust measure of personality that has been validated across cultures and contexts. Furthermore, the personality profile of the pilot sample was examined and compared to a normative sample representing the UK working population. Data from 591 pilots (95.1% male) were collected. Analyses include the internal reliability and factorial validity (precisely, Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling) to examine the measurement equivalence of the NEO PI-R with reference to UK norms ( N = 1,301). Internal reliability estimates of the NEO PI-R scores were good at the domain level, but generally weak at the facet level. The structural model in the pilot sample was congruent with the general working population sample. Furthermore, there was convincing evidence for a distinct personality profile of civil pilots, although the stability of this profile will require further validation. The NEO PI-R’s validity in the assessment of general personality in civil airline pilots is discussed, along with implications of the results for the utility of personality assessment in civil aviation contexts.

Orientation: Most psychological measuring instruments developed in Western, educated, industrial, rich, democratic (W.E.I.R.D.) countries have been found to inadequately capture and represent personality outside the borders of these countries. Consequently, culturally informed or indigenous measuring instruments need to be developed.Research purpose: This study aimed to inspect whether an overlap exists between the empirical data obtained and the theoretical six-factor SAPI framework, providing evidence for an indigenous personality structure in a multi-cultural context.Motivation for the study: Psychological professionals in South Africa have been criticised for using culturally biased instruments that do not display an accurate representation of the 11 official cultural groups. The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI) aims to address these criticisms, highlighting the importance of establishing the cultural applicability of the model through model-fit analyses.Research approach/design and method: A quantitative, cross-sectional design was used to administer the SAPI-English version to a sample of employed, unemployed and employment-seeking South Africans (N = 3912). Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling (ESEM) was used to model the data.Main findings: The results revealed that the model was a good fit to the data and that the SAPI factors accurately represent personality in a multi-cultural context.Practical/managerial implication: Using a well-researched indigenous personality assessment like the SAPI can assist South African organisations to fairly and reliably assess people across the 11 official cultural groups.Contribution/value-add: This study advances the processes surrounding indigenous test development through the establishment of a personality model and measure that encapsulates personality traits exhibited in a multi-cultural context.

The Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2) is a widely recognized tool for assessing personality traits across five domains and fifteen facets. However, its psychometric properties in non-Western cultures like Bangladesh remain unexplored. This study aimed to validate the Bangla BFI-2 (BFI-2-B) within a Bangladeshi community sample to provide a culturally adapted personality assessment tool. A cross-sectional survey was conducted on 1,095 participants, where 646 participants (59%; 358 female; Agemean = 24.25 years, SD = 4.47) passed all attention checks. Participants responded to a demographic questionnaire, Bangla Big Five-2 (BFI-2-B), and Bangla NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO FFI). The domain-level structural validity was analyzed using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM). A series of five different latent models were tested by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for facet-level structural validity. Full Measurement invariance across gender, education level, and language were tested. The item quality was assessed using Item Response Theory analysis (IRT). Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed by correlating the BFI-2-B domains with the NEO-FFI. The BFI-2-B demonstrated high internal consistency across domains (> 0.70) and facets (> 0.60; except energy level, intellectual curiosity, and respectfulness). ESEM confirmed structural validity at the domain level (CFI & TLI = 0.96). CFA analysis revealed that at the facet level, a three-facet structure with an acquiescence factor yielded the most acceptable fit (CFI& TLI0.95; RMSEA0.06; SRMR 0.08). Full measurement invariance was established across gender and educational levels, but only weak invariance was found across languages, indicating linguistic challenges. The similar domains of BFI-2-B and NEO-FFI had strong correlations (r 0.59), and distinct domains exhibited low correlations, indicating strong convergent and discriminant validity. IRT analysis showed that most items had high to moderate discrimination. The BFI-2-B is a reliable and valid tool for assessing personality in the Bangladeshi context, with robust psychometric properties across domains and most facets. Addressing linguistic nuances and testing in more diverse samples can further enhance its cross-cultural applicability.The stage 1 protocol for this Registered Report was accepted in principle on 24/09/24. The protocol, as accepted by the journal, can be found at: 10.17605/OSF.IO/7DTQG.

Structural and concurrent validity of the International English Mini-Markers in an adolescent sample: Exploring analytic approaches and implications for personality assessment

Filling out long questionnaires can be frustrating, unpleasant, and discouraging for respondents to continue. This is why shorter forms of long instruments are preferred, especially when they have comparable reliability and validity. In present study, two short forms of the Cross-cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2) were developed and validated. The items of the short forms were all selected from the 28 personality scales of the CPAI-2 based on the norm sample. Based on some priori criteria, we obtained the appropriate items and constructed the 56-item Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) and the 28-item CPAI. Then, we examined the factor structure of both short forms with Exploratory SEM (ESEM) and replicated the four-factor structure of the original CPAI-2, reflecting the four personality domains of Chinese people, namely, Social Potency, Dependability, Accommodation, and Interpersonal Relatedness. Further analyses with ESEM models demonstrate full measurement invariance across gender for both short forms. The results show that females score lower than males on Social Potency. In addition, these four factors of both short forms have adequate internal consistency, and the correlation patterns of the four factors, the big five personality traits, and several health-related variables are extremely similar across the two short forms, reflecting adequate and comparable criterion validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Overall, the short versions of CPAI-2 are psychometrically acceptable and have practically implications for measuring Chinese personality and cross-cultural research.