Abstract
Restoration strategies for coral reefs are usually focused on the recovery of bio-physical characteristics. They seldom include an evaluation of the recovery of the socio-ecological and ecosystem services features of coral reef systems. This paper proposes a conceptual framework to address both the socio-ecological system features of coral reefs with the implementation of restoration activity for degraded coral reefs. Such a framework can lead to better societal outcomes from restoration activities while restoring bio-physical, social and ecosystem service features of such systems. We first developed a Socio Ecological System Analysis Framework, which combines the Ostrom Framework for analyzing socio-ecological systems and the Kittinger et al. human dimensions framework of coral reefs socio-ecological systems. We then constructed a Restoration of Coral Reef Framework, based on the most used and recent available coral reef restoration literature. These two frameworks were combined to present a Socio-Ecological Systems & Restoration Coral Reef Framework. These three frameworks can be used as a guide for managers, researchers and decision makers to analyze the needs of coral reef restoration in a way that addresses both socio-economic and ecological objectives to analyze, design, implement and monitor reef restoration programs.
Highlights
Tropical coral reefs supply a wide number of ecosystem services to coastal societies
This paper proposes a conceptual framework to address both the socio-ecological system features of coral reefs with the implementation of restoration activity for degraded coral reefs
We constructed a Restoration of Coral Reef Framework, based on the most used and recent available coral reef restoration literature
Summary
Tropical coral reefs supply a wide number of ecosystem services to coastal societies. The most relevant ecosystem services delivered by coral reefs are provision of renewable resources (fisheries, materials for medicines, algae, live fish), shoreline protection, regulation of erosive processes, buildup of land, promoting growth of mangrove and seagrass beds, generation of coral sand, breakwater to reduce wave height, nursery and habitat, biodiversity and genetic library, nitrogen fixation and CO2/Ca control, resilience maintenance, aesthetic values, sustaining the livelihood of communities, support of diving, snorkeling, tourism, leisure opportunities, cultural and spiritual values [8,9,10,11,12] Despite their importance, more than 40% of the world’s tropical coral reef ecosystems have been progressively damaged over the last four decades [13,14]. Corals have been affected by anthropogenic pressures such as overharvesting, destructive fishing, anchor damage, ship groundings, pollution, invasive species, storms, disease, eutrophication, sediment loads from agricultural, urbanized terrestrial catchments and coastal development These cumulative pressures have had a deleterious effect on coral reefs ecosystems around the world [23,24,25,26,27]. Their endangered status, coral reefs are still poorly protected or under traditional conservation management that are not achieving the desired goals [28,29,30]
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