Copyright protection of video games: a comparative study

The paper relates to the actual extent of the "margin of appreciation" of national law-making power in Europe when it takes ethical issues into consideration. This occurs when the use of technoscience may affect fundamental interests. The discretion of the legislature is limited, particularly by the transnational system arising from the European legal integration within both the European Union and the Council of Europe. The two schemes of integration, although there are differences between them, converge to put national legislation under pressure, particularly when it considers ethical matters. As a matter of fact, ethical issues cannot be approached at the national level alone but must be addressed at least at the continental level. An important role in the work of shaping the ethical rules from a continental perspective is played not by the national legislatures, but by the dialogue between the different levels of the judiciary. This role is inescapable and cannot be replaced by legislation, even if it is approved in a transnational plan. The function of the case law in regulating phenomena with ethical implications is studied, taking into consideration the case of Italian Law no. 40 of 2004 concerning medically assisted reproduction. Over the last 15years, this law, which is inconsistent with many fundamental ethical principles, but has not been amended by the legislature, has been in the process of being corrected by the dialogue between European and national case law.

2023/26 The obligation to record working time in the light of European and national (German) case law - part 1 (GE) This article deals with the aftermath of the ECJ’s CCOO judgment (14 May 2019, C-55/18), which has been a major issue in various EU jurisdictions. The article consists of two parts. This first part introduces the case, its primary consequences in Germany and deals with a comparison of legal requirements throughout Europe. The second part will discuss some particular consequences in Germany.

2023/27 The obligation to record working time in the light of European and national (German) case law – Part 2 (GE) This article deals with the aftermath of the ECJ’s CCOO judgment (14 May 2019, C-55/18), which has been a major issue in various EU jurisdictions. The article consists of two parts. This second part discusses some particular consequences in Germany.

Property rights are at the core of property law. They are used to shape relationships between people and things. Their effect is generally against the world (erga omnes) and hence there are limitations on the number and content of those rights. The vast majority of legal systems within the EU operates a numerus clausus – or ‘closed list’ – of property rights. In the past decades, there has been an increase in the making of a European private law: private law rules at the EU level. This does not only concern rules of EU contract law, but increasingly also rules of property law at the EU level. Examples of the latter are rules relating tomortgage credit that influence the content of rights of hypothec, but also rules on the law applicable to international succession- or matrimonial property law cases. At the same time, there is influence of the four basic freedoms (freedom of movement of goods, persons, services and capital) on national private law. In this case law, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) relies on national law, but also provides its own EU terminology and definitions. This does not mean that a full-fledged law of property arises at the EU level, but it raises the question what system-elements are also present at the EU level. National legal systems generally operate on the basis of a closed system of property rights (a numerus clausus). Existing European Property Law research looks into the rise of European property law and the existence of principles such as the numerus clausus, in European legislation. This article focuses on the Court of Justice of the European Union and investigates whether EU law has its own numerus clausus: a list of property rights defined autonomously in European case law and legislation

This chapter interrogates European law as actively contributing to the undermining of migrants’ rights, since its inception. It claims that European case law in the area of migration is a continuation of a pre-existing characteristic: the tendency to privilege the interests of European states over those of migrants and of Europeans with transnational ties. The chapter thus examines the hypothesis that current-day migrants, being people from former European colonies, are subjected to a split form of legality that was perfected at the end of the colonial era. The legal system maintains the pretence of equality before the law while at the same time relegating colonial subjects to sub-standard legal protection by either excluding them from the application of human rights standards altogether or by lowering these standards. In addition to these two elements, a third legal governance technique with its origins in colonialism is the use of emergency powers themselves. Coloniality thus remains a structuring element of human rights law as it responds to migration. Naming and exposing this colonial structure may be helpful to the extent that it makes a legal and political critique possible, in addition to helping actors to navigate the field.

Sexual and gender-related violence are widely regarded as serious violations of human rights. Notwithstanding, those who apply for asylum and invoke violence as a basis of their claim face difficulties in obtaining international protection. This may be due to the lack of trust in the applicant’s credibility, the nature of the evidence, lack of official information on incidents of gender violence, or the inclination of asylum countries not to become involved in ‘private matters’. This article analyses the trends in adjudication of asylum claims related to gender-based violence. In particular, it examines the recent European and national case law on asylum claims related to female genital mutilation, domestic violence and trafficking. It explores possible solutions to obstacles for securing international protection in such claims through various remedies. The authors note that the EU legislative developments do not eliminate these obstacles. At the same time, attempts in various national jurisdictions to dismiss gender-based claims as a ‘private matter’ are being challenged; there is now recognition that states have a positive obligation to ensure the protection of an individual’s basic rights, in particular through the application of ECtHR case law. These developments suggest positive trends towards protecting the applicants with gender-related claims.

By way of a comparison between European and United States case law regarding same-sex marriages, this chapter aims at stressing the important role of judicial activity in implementing the full meaning of equality in exercising the fundamental right to marry. From an analysis of different judgments concerning the same-sex marriage, it is possible to observe a gradual global prevailing of the “paradigm of heterosexual marriage”, as a result of the non-discrimination principle on the grounds of sexual orientation, which is consolidated by the occidental juridical culture. The study of this case law also points out the relationship between social consent, judicial activity and legislative power. The European supranational courts as well as the US Supreme Court seem to check in a more stringent manner the discretion of the domestic/State legislators, in accordance with the growing social consent in favor of same-sex marriages. The “new approach” of the European supranational courts and the US Supreme Court has the merit to trigger a virtuous dialog among lower courts, State legislators and civil society in order to gradually give fullness to the meaning of the non-discrimination principle on the grounds of sexual orientation. Hence, it is possible to say that the current question is not if the same-sex marriage is constitutional but who decides about it. Judicial action, in the absence of legislative answers, risks guaranteeing only a fragmentary (and often contradictory) protection of fundamental rights. It should be desirable that the legislator will choose suggestions coming from the “living law” and that the “dichotomy” between the two powers will be reduced to unity, according to the rules of a democratic system, based on the separation of and loyal cooperation between the same powers.

At present, stormwater management is one of the key issues in urban policy. This is due to the increasing urbanisation, climate change, the growing threat of extreme (weather) events and the need to protect water resources. Legislation plays an essential role in the process of project planning and implementation. The recognition of opportunities and barriers contained in these regulations forms the basis for action by the central government, local authorities and investors. The article aims to analyse legal provisions, administrative decisions and factual circumstances that provide the foundation of administrative court rulings in Poland and regard the legal possibilities of rainwater management in urban areas. The adopted research method allows for/includes the author’s interpretation and formulation of de lege ferenda conclusions. The results of analyses of both European and national legislation and case law indicate that there is a problem with the interpretation of existing legislation and the lack of legal definitions of basic equipment and solutions in the field of water law, for instance. Such legal circumstances make it difficult to make the required legal decisions, and have a negative impact on the timing of implementation and number of these muchneeded projects.

The article reveals the content of the principle of good governance based on the analysis of the Constitution and laws of Ukraine, international treaties, decisions of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, as well as decisions of the European Court of Human Rights and the Supreme Court.The author analyzes the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights, which formulates the principle of good governance in its modern sense, and on the basis of this analysis determines its content and features. It has been established that the rulings of the European Court of Human Rights have established a consistent practice of understanding the principle of good governance, which includes five main components, a detailed analysis of each of which is based on specific examples. It was found that the principle of good governance is characterized by the dynamics of its development, which is manifested in the constant expansion of the content of this principle. It is argued that the permanent development of the principle of good governance has led to the formation of a new component of this principle - proportionality.The national case law in cases arising from public law disputes is described and the approach of courts to the application of the principle of good governance is clarified. It is substantiated that there is a well-established case law in social disputes, according to which one of the manifestations of the principle of good governance is that in the absence of an effective mechanism for guaranteeing social benefits provided by law, in full or no statutory expenditures for such benefits. should make it impossible to protect the property rights of a person guaranteed by Article 41 of the Constitution of Ukraine. Other aspects of the application of the principle of good governance in judicial practice have been clarified and analyzed. Based on the analysis, a conclusion is drawn about the importance of the principle of good governance in Euro-pean and national case law.

The book evaluates the application of the first autonomous European civil procedures: the European Order for Payment and the European Small Claims Procedure. The study offers an in-depth comparative and empirical analysis of the way these instruments function in interaction with national procedures in England and Wales, France, Italy, and Romania. The analysis combines available statistics with European and national case law, together with practitioners’ experience. This approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the difficulties encountered, and of the solutions chosen to overcome procedural intricacies and to secure parties’ procedural rights. The findings create a solid basis for enhancing judicial cooperation and addressing the practical aspects related to the application of the procedures. In its conclusion, the book discusses the ongoing developments taking shape in this area, and reflects on the implications that the legal standards established by the European uniform procedures have for future developments. The book is of particular relevance for practitioners and courts applying the European Order for Payment and the European Small Claims Procedures; for European and national legislators, and policymakers working in this field; and for scholars interested in European civil procedure.

The article aims to discuss the issues related to the nature of entitlements to retirement benefits in connection with the regulations relating to the retirement age and to consider existing and future changes in the regulations considering gender discrimination resulting from the different retirement ages of women and men. In particular, the existing regulations regarding the retirement age in Poland and Europe are presented. Based on Polish law, the history of changes and the dynamics of reforms related to the retirement age in national law are shown. The introduced pension reforms confirmed different retirement ages, which were eventually restored to age sixty for women and age sixty-five for men. The issues of the reasons for the changes and the state of the Polish pension system, including the existence of the so-called pension gap are mentioned. A comparison of applicable regulations and principles relating to the rights of people was made. An analysis of European Union law and a review of both national and European case law has also become an essential need in consideration regarding pension gender discrimination. The article also quotes data on the retirement age in selected European countries, based on which conclusions were drawn. The analysis of legal provisions, proposed changes, case law, and legal theory became the basis for final considerations that attempt to answer the question of whether gender discrimination in pensions a common phenomenon is and whether this phenomenon occurs under the applicable legal status.

The law on legal affiliation or parentage determines who the legal parents of a child are and/or how legal parenthood is established and annulled. Together with the law on marriage, the law on legal affiliation is at the heart of family law in European legal systems, since broadly speaking, marriage and affiliation define the legal family. Since the national rules on legal affiliation influence the family life of the individuals involved, they have to withstand the scrutiny of Article 8 European Convention of Human Rights (hereafter: ECHR) which guarantees the respect for private and family life. In the field of legal affiliation, landmark cases of the European Court of Human Rights (hereafter: the European Court) on Article 8 ECHR, like Marckx and Keegan, are generally understood to have had a converging effect on the law on legal affiliation in Europe. In this paper we will explore exactly in which matters the European Court has been active and to what extent the European Court's case law leaves room for divergent national laws on legal affiliation. Our starting-point is the assumption that in order to determine the harmonizing effect of the case law of the European Court, one has to analyze to what extent the supranational legal order, in this case Article 8 ECHR as interpreted by the European Court, allows for differences among the national legal systems. The degree of convergence of national laws on legal affiliation is determined by the leeway for which the legal order of the ECHR allows. In order to examine this leeway we will first analyze the differences between national laws regarding legal affiliation. This will involve setting out the whole scope of the law of affiliation. After that, it will be examined which parts of the national laws on legal affiliation are affected by the European Court's case law and which parts are not. In the third part, a conclusion will be drawn regarding the tendency in the law on legal affiliation towards harmonization or divergence.

У статті розглядається безсторонність (неупередженість) суду як невід'ємний елемент та міра реалізації завдань справедливого суду. Зауважується, що одним із чинників, що позитивно впливає на формування громадської думки щодо судової влади та суддів безумовно, є безсторонність (неупередженість) суддів. Адже безсторонній розгляд і вирішення судових справ - один із головних обов'язків кожного судді, а також складова частина присяги судді, порушенням якої визнається, зокрема, вчинення суддею дій, що можуть викликати сумнів у його неупередженості та підірвати довіру до судової влади в цілому з боку громадськості. Статтю присвячено дослідженню сутності безсторонності суддів та визначенню її основних критеріїв з огляду на міжнародні норми, норми національного законодавства, а також практику Європейського Суду з прав людини. Зазначається, що в Європейському Суді з прав людини напрацьована багаторічна практика щодо з'ясування того, чи був національний суд, розглядаючи конкретну справу, безсторонннім у розумінні п. 1 ст. 6 Конвенції про захист прав людини та основоположних свобод. Так, п. 1 ст. 6 Конвенції вимагає, щоб «суд», що підпадає під його дію, був неупередженим. Як правило, неупередженість означає відсутність упереджень або упередженості, при цьому її наявність або відсутність можуть бути перевірені різними способами. Отже, сенс і прояви безсторонності прийнято виводити з оцінок правового поняття «упередженість», яке має окремі усталені практикою Європейського Суду критерії, пов'язані з наданням переваг одній зі сторін спору. Саме на констатації фактів упередженості і на цій основі визнання порушень правил Конвенції про справедливий суд побудована прецедентна практика Європейського Суду. Крім того, відповідно до усталеної практики Європейського Суду з прав людини наявність безсторонності відповідно до п. 1 ст. 6 Конвенції про захист прав людини та основоположних свобод повинна визначатися за об'єктивним та суб'єктивним критеріями. Європейський Суд у своїх рішеннях проводить відмінність між об'єктивним підходом, тобто визначенням, чи були судді надані достатні гарантії, щоб виключити будь обґрунтовані сумніви в цьому відношенні, та суб'єктивним підходом, тобто прагненням переконатися в суб'єктивному обвинуваченні або інтересі певного судді у конкретній справі. У статті також проаналізовані приклади випадків, у яких може постати питання щодо недостатньої безсторонності суду: перший, функціонального характеру, стосується, наприклад, виконання однією особою різних функцій в межах судового провадження, або ієрархічні чи інші зв'язки між цією та іншою особою в межах того ж провадження; другий має особистий характер і є наслідком поведінки судді у даній справі. На підставі проведеного аналізу зроблено висновок, що безсторонність є ключовою характеристикою судді, головною ознакою судової влади та основою судового процесу і вважається очевидним фактом. Безсторонність суду має означати його діяльність виключно на основі чинного законодавства, враховуючи принцип верховенства права, на підставі професійних знань і власної правосвідомості, виключаючи будь-який сторонній вплив і підконтрольність. Власне безсторонність як ознака справедливого судового розгляду означає рівне ставлення суду до учасників, вирішення спору як нейтральним і безстороннім фахівцем без надання комусь переваг. Саме такий стан речей зможе реально забезпечити право кожної особи на справедливий судовий процес та слугувати стандартом організації судочинства у правовій демократичній державі.

This article explores the notion of European consensus on selected socially sensitive issues – same-sex relationships, abortion, euthanasia, and assisted suicide. It investigates how these topics are addressed in Western and Central-Eastern Europe, with particular attention to the interplay between EU law and national legal and political frameworks. The research focuses on how customary change is negotiated through legal norms, political debate, and social values. It asks how EU integration and European case law influence national policymaking, and how differing historical and political contexts shape policy divergence. The study is based on a qualitative and comparative methodology, combining legal analysis of European case law, comparative review of national legislation and case law, and discourse analysis of EU institutional debates. Findings suggest that Western European countries generally implement more progressive reforms, while Central-Eastern European states proceed more cautiously, constrained by conservative traditions. The article concludes that while EU legal standards exert integrative pressure, local contexts continue to define the limits of normative convergence. A balance between liberal and conservative approaches is necessary to maintain both legal coherence and cultural pluralism within the EU.

1 Powers of Investigation and Procedural Rights and Guarantees: The Interplay between European and National Legislation and Case Law 2 Settlements of Antitrust Investigations: Commitment Decisions under Article 9 of Regulation 1/2003 3 Optimal Antitrust Fines: Theory and Practice 4 The European Commission's 2006 Guidelines on Fines 5 Leniency: Theory and Practice 6 Is Criminalisation the Answer?