Abstract
Non-consumptive effects (NCEs) of predators are part of the complex interactions among insect natural enemies and prey. NCEs have been shown to significantly affect prey foraging and feeding. Leafhopper's (Auchenorrhyncha) lengthy phloem feeding bouts may play a role in pathogen transmission in vector species and also exposes them to predation risk. However, NCEs on leafhoppers have been scarcely studied, and we lack basic information about how anti-predator behaviour influences foraging and feeding in these species. Here we report a study on non-consumptive and consumptive predator-prey interactions in a naturally co-occurring spider–leafhopper system. In mesocosm arenas we studied movement patterns during foraging and feeding of the leafhopper Psammotettix alienus in the presence of the spider predator Tibellus oblongus. Leafhoppers delayed feeding and fed much less often when the spider was present. Foraging movement pattern changed under predation risk: movements became more frequent and brief. There was considerable individual variation in foraging movement activity. Those individuals that increased movement activity in the presence of predators exposed themselves to higher predation risk. However, surviving individuals exhibited a ‘cool headed’ reaction to spider presence by moving less than leafhoppers in control trials. No leafhoppers were preyed upon while feeding. We consider delayed feeding as a “paradoxical” antipredator tactic, since it is not necessarily an optimal strategy against a sit-and-wait generalist predator.
Highlights
The consumption of prey by a predator is one of the most important ecological interactions, but costly anti-predator behaviour of prey, called non-consumptive effects (NCEs), have considerable impact on ecological systems [1, 2]
Question 1: Leafhoppers changed their pattern of movement activity during foraging if they were exposed to predation risk
Spider × Time interactions were not significant (Table 3 {1,2}), the slope of the “background” temporal changes in event durations was independent of spider presence, as the temporal trends found were similar between spider and control trials
Summary
The consumption of prey by a predator is one of the most important ecological interactions, but costly anti-predator behaviour of prey, called non-consumptive effects (NCEs), have considerable impact on ecological systems [1, 2]. A meta-analysis of studies in terrestrial systems showed substantial and significant decrease in foraging effort as a consequence of increased predation risk [8]. Such negative impacts of NCEs have the potential to cascade through ecological systems, affecting productivity and diversity at lower trophic levels [1]. Sap feeding hemipteran insects are especially vulnerable to predation when their stylet is inserted in the plant tissues. Their decision whether to feed or for how long to feed should markedly depend on predation risk
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