Controversies about the occurrence of chloral hydrate in drinking water

Abstract

Besides trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), chloral hydrate (CH) is the next most prevalent disinfection by-product (DBP) in drinking water, formed as a result of the reaction between chlorine and natural organic matter (NOM). Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde) should be limited in drinking water because of its adverse health effect. The controversies concerning the appearance of CH in disinfected water found in literature are discussed in the present paper. According to some authors the CH yield during chlorination of water depends only on TOC. However, there are other data available that do not confirm this relationship. Another fact requiring clarification is the dependence of CH formation on pH. In the present study, CH formation is analysed in different types of water disinfected with different doses of chlorine. Formation of CH is correlated with the dose of Cl 2 and the contact time. The formation of chloral hydrate takes place as long as chlorine is available in the water. Total organic carbon (TOC) is not considered the main factor influencing the production of chloral hydrate in water treated with Cl 2 as the production depends also on the nature of NOM. Higher levels of CH are observed at alkaline conditions (pH > 7). A significant correlation ( R 2 > 0.9) between the concentrations of chloral hydrate and chloroform has been observed. The preozonation increases significantly the chloral hydrate formation potential in the water treated. Biofiltration process does not remove all of CH precursors and its efficiency depends strongly on the contact time. Chloral hydrate was analyzed by gas chromatography with electron capture detector with the detection limit 0.1 μg L −1.