Abstract
We have previously identified pyloric pressures and plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) concentrations as independent determinants of energy intake following administration of intraduodenal lipid and intravenous CCK. We evaluated in healthy men whether these parameters also determine energy intake in response to intraduodenal protein, and whether, across the nutrients, any predominant gastrointestinal (GI) factors exist, or many factors make small contributions. Data from nine published studies, in which antropyloroduodenal pressures, GI hormones, and GI /appetite perceptions were measured during intraduodenal lipid or protein infusions, were pooled. In all studies energy intake was quantified immediately after the infusions. Specific variables for inclusion in a mixed‐effects multivariable model for determination of independent predictors of energy intake were chosen following assessment for collinearity, and within‐subject correlations between energy intake and these variables were determined using bivariate analyses adjusted for repeated measures. In models based on all studies, or lipid studies, there were significant effects for amplitude of antral pressure waves, premeal glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) and time‐to‐peak GLP‐1 concentrations, GLP‐1 AUC and bloating scores (P < 0.05), and trends for basal pyloric pressure (BPP), amplitude of duodenal pressure waves, peak CCK concentrations, and hunger and nausea scores (0.05 < P ≤ 0.094), to be independent determinants of subsequent energy intake. In the model including the protein studies, only BPP was identified as an independent determinant of energy intake (P < 0.05). No single parameter was identified across all models, and effects of the variables identified were relatively small. Taken together, while GI mechanisms contribute to the regulation of acute energy intake by lipid and protein, their contribution to the latter is much less. Moreover, the effects are likely to reflect small, cumulative contributions from a range of interrelated factors.
Highlights
In healthy humans, energy intake and expenditure are, in most cases, balanced precisely over long periods of time, so that body weight is stable
Collinearity was present between a number of variables; related variables from the same underlying motility, hormone, or GI/appetite perception variable were excluded from the multivariate model to guarantee a robust estimation of the regression effects
The major findings are that the models, based either on all studies or the lipid studies, identified a range of GI factors, including amplitude of antral pressure waves, premeal glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and time-to-peak GLP-1 concentrations, GLP-1 AUC and bloating scores, and trends for basal pyloric pressure (BPP), amplitude of duodenal pressure waves, peak CCK concentrations, and hunger and nausea scores, as independent determinants of energy intake
Summary
Energy intake and expenditure are, in most cases, balanced precisely over long periods of time, so that body weight is stable. This energy homeostasis is controlled by complex interactions between central and peripheral feedback signals, including neurohumoral responses to ingested food (Woods et al 2000; Cummings and Overduin 2007). Our pooled data analysis of eight studies from our laboratory, in which antropyloroduodenal pressures, GI hormones, and GI/appetite perceptions were measured during intraduodenal lipid, or intravenous CCK, infusions, indicated that the magnitude of the stimulation of pyloric pressures and plasma CCK concentrations is independent determinants of subsequent energy intake in healthy men (Seimon et al 2010), consistent with the concept that both pyloric pressures and CCK are important, in the acute regulation of energy intake
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