Abstract
Low self-esteem has been established as a vulnerability factor for depression. In line with recent research, we suggest that a full understanding of the role of self-esteem in depression requires consideration of contingent self-esteem as well. For most people, competence is an important source of self-esteem. Students in particular link their self-esteem to academic competence. To test the hypothesis that academic contingent self-esteem (aCSE) predicts depressive symptoms (DS), two studies were conducted. Preceding the investigation of our hypothesis, the first purpose of Study 1 was to describe the development of aCSE, self-esteem (SE) level, and DS in adolescence in a sample of German students aged 10–16 (N = 1888) in order to provide a foundation for further analyses. Then, to address the main question, age and gender differences in aCSE, SE level, and DS as well as their relations were investigated. The results show that (1) gender differences emerged after the age of 10/11. Girls scored higher on aCSE and DS and lower on SE level than did boys, and aCSE and DS decreased and SE level increased over time in boys, while the rather disadvantageous pattern in girls remained stable. (2) After controlling for SE level and aCSE, the effects of gender and age × gender interaction on DS disappeared, suggesting an influence of aCSE on DS. (3) aCSE predicted DS over and above SE level. Since the results of Study 1 did not allow for causal conclusions, a longitudinal study (N = 160) was conducted to further investigate the causal role of aCSE. According to the diathesis-stress model, aCSE was expected to serve as a diathesis for developing DS in the face of academic stress (daily hassles) during an academic semester at university. The results of Study 2 revealed that aCSE interacted with corresponding hassles to predict increases in DS. High levels of academic stress led to increases in DS only among students who strongly based their SE on academic competence. Implications for prevention and intervention of depression are discussed.
Highlights
Depression is one of the most frequent mental health problems in children and adolescents
The first objective of Study 1 was to clarify the development of depressive symptoms (DS), SE level, and academic contingent self-esteem (aCSE) along with their gender differences
Both level and contingency of SE had a significant effect and accounted for gender and age differences in DS: after controlling for SE level and contingent SE, the main effect of gender and the age × gender interaction disappeared. Both covariates were significant, indicating that aCSE had a unique effect beyond SE level on DS
Summary
Depression is one of the most frequent mental health problems in children and adolescents. Age at onset of depression, especially in combination with comorbid disorders, is associated with an elevated risk of the persistence of depression (Groen and Petermann, 2005) as well as a number of negative outcomes in adulthood such as lower life satisfaction, lower educational aspirations, and early marriage (Gotlib et al, 1998; Franko et al, 2005). These results highlight that many children and adolescents suffer from depression and its consequences. Above all, the increasing rates of depression in children and younger adolescents raise important questions about the development of depressive disorders and underscore the importance of identifying vulnerabilities to this disorder at a young age
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