Abstract
1. Nature's hierarchy is discoverable and effectively represented by a branching diagram. 2. Characters change their status at different hierarchical levels. Characters within a study group that are either present in all members of the study group or have a wider distribution than the study group (plesiomorphies) cannot indicate relationships within the study group. 3. Character congruence is the decisive criterion for distinguishing homology (synapomorphy) from non-homology (homoplasy). 4. The principle of parsimony maximizes character congruence.
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