Concepts of Life and Death in Ancient China with a Discussion of the Problem of Burying

Abstract

The paper covers the remote times to the later period, i.e., from the 22nd century B.C. to the end of the 18th century A.D. (from the Xia-Shang-Zhou-Dynasties to the Ming-Qing-Dynasties). For the content of the earlier period, the pictographic characters of life and death carved on the oracle bones of the Yin-Shang-Dynasties excavated from the Yin ruins, and the customs and institutions of burying the living with the dead, and the superstitious ideas about life and death are included. For the later periods, discussions and expaundings on the concept of life and death as well as the problem of burying and funeral ceremonies recorded in works of various sects and schools of philosophers, thinkers, physicians and politicians are presented. Looking far into the history of China, we see different concepts of life and death and different attitudes toward the problem of burying and funeral ceremonies. Confucius and his followers hold the idea of the “mandate of heaven” of life and death, advocating a luxurious burying and complicated funeral ceremonies. The Taoist School believes in an immortal life, holding different points of view with regard to life and death, and opposes that of the Confucianists. The Mohist School, the Songyan-Yiwen School, and not a few other philosophers and physicians such as Xun Zi, Yuan Tan, Wang Chung, Fang Then, Li Zhi, Zhang Jingyue, et al., hold that birth, age and death are natural processes, and most of them strongly oppose the expoundings that men will become ghosts or devils after death and the existence of soul. Some of them also strongly oppose the current customs of luxurious burying and complicated funeral ceremony. Some important medical literature such as the Huangdi Neijing (the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine) holds that contradiction between Yin and Yang forces is the motivating power promoting birth, growth, and development of all living beings, and that once this contradiction ceases, life will end. Other view points of life and death put forward by some famous physicians such as Yi He of the 6th century B.C., and Zhang Jing-yue of the Ming Dynasty are also included.