Conceptions of Justice in the Examination Systems of England, Germany, and Sweden: A Look at Safeguards of Fair Procedure and Possibilities of Appeal

Abstract

In societies following a meritocratic ideal, educational certificates and examinations play a key role in allocating life chances to individuals. Procedures for allocating life chances need to be perceived as fair by those concerned if examinations and certificates are to possess legitimacy. This article traces and compares basic conceptions of procedural justice embedded in systems of examination and assessment of secondary schools in Germany, Sweden, and England. It uses Gerald Leventhal’s concept of procedural justice to analyze context-dependent differences in uses of examinations for purposes of ensuring fairness and facilitating appeals.