Abstract
We conducted ambient monitoring of various hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) for 2 years (2013-2015) in two adjacent Korean cities in a megacity area: Seoul and Incheon. Measured HAPs included volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals (HMs). The objectives of this study were to evaluate the spatiotemporal variations of HAPs, to prioritize HAPs based on health risks, to identify sources using a receptor-based model, and to estimate source-specific risks. Overall, the HAP levels in Incheon were higher than those in Seoul. The concentrations of combustion-origin HAPs, such as PAHs and some HMs, were significantly higher during the heating period than during the non-heating period. However, most VOCs exhibited an opposite trend. Benzo[a]pyrene showed the highest cancer risk in both cities, followed by formaldehyde, arsenic, and benzene; trichloroethylene was the only species that exceeded the hazard quotient of 1. Cumulative cancer risks were 2.0 × 10-4 in Seoul and 2.7 × 10-4 in Incheon. Major sources and their contributions to each HAP concentration were estimated by positive matrix factorization modeling. Based on source-specific risk assessments, we suggest that both cities should give high priority to the control of traffic pollution and the supply of cleaner fuels in non-residential sectors. Reducing carbonyl concentrations in Seoul and industrial emissions in Incheon is also necessary. Establishing new ambient standards for benzo[a]pyrene and formaldehyde is worth considering as a long-term measure. This study provides scientific information on the occurrence, health risks, and sources of various HAPs in large urban areas.
Highlights
Air pollution is recognized as a public health threat and is an inevitable consequence of fossil fuel consumption for energy production and industrial activities (An et al 2018; Samet and Gruskin 2015)
Since this study focused on the occurrence of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) in the ambient atmosphere exposed to the general public, the selection of sampling sites in each city was determined by considering the spatial distribution of nonindustrial areas
The cancer risk (CR) for a specific HAP was calculated by its mean concentration (x*ij ) and the corresponding inhalation unit risk (UR) factor, and the non-cancer risk was estimated by the hazard quotient (HQ) as follows: CR j 1⁄4 x*ij  UR j ð4Þ
Summary
Air pollution is recognized as a public health threat and is an inevitable consequence of fossil fuel consumption for energy production and industrial activities (An et al 2018; Samet and Gruskin 2015). East Asia is seriously affected by air pollution, ambient particulate matter (PM) The association of environmental factors with cancer in humans (IARC 2018; USEPA 2019; WHO 2000) has focused attention on the adverse effects of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs, or air toxics) in urban and industrial areas (Kim et al 2020; Scheffe et al 2016; Wu et al 2011). There is no clear definition of HAPs; some characteristics of HAPs are (i) HAPs include many genotoxic and carcinogenic chemicals (WHO 2000); (ii) most HAPs are nonthreshold pollutants that affect health from prolonged exposure to low concentrations (Patrick 1994); (iii) some HAPs exert non-carcinogenic respiratory effects, environmental impact, and bioaccumulation (USEPA 2019).
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Free) 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a call
