Computer‐based scaffoldings influence students' metacognitive monitoring and problem‐solving efficiency in an intelligent tutoring system

The effects of multitasking on metacognitive monitoring in primary and secondary school students

The study examines metacognitive monitoring accuracy of the learning activity of university students in terms of managing emotions skills. The current results continue to expand an investigation of metacognitive monitoring accuracy factors in university students. The main instruments used in the study were the “MSCEIT V 2.0” test and the “EmIn” questionnaire aiming to find out the relationships between the levels of emotional intelligence such as managing emotions skills and metacognitive monitoring accuracy rates. Metacognitive monitoring accuracy was defined as the difference coefficient between subjective assessment of the accuracy of performing (metacognitive judgements rates) and test results. We took into account such profiles of metacognitive activity as: profiles of “MMA+ +” and “MMA− −” rates that denote accurate metacognitive monitoring and profiles of “INK− +” and “IK+ −” rates that denote inaccurate metacognitive monitoring. The results indicate the significance of the empirically established correlations of the medium and high levels between the variables of managing emotions skills according to the “MSCEIT V 2.0” test and metacognitive monitoring accuracy rates in JOLs and RCJs. At the trend level, the students with medium levels of managing emotions skills (“MSCEIT V 2.0”) are more accurate in their judgments, while the students with very high, high, medium, and partially very low levels of managing emotions skills (“EmIn”) are more accurate in their metacognitive judgments. Thus, the results of the analysis found in the study can play an important role in the process of understanding the relationship between metacognitive monitoring accuracy and the learning activities in university students in terms of managing emotions skills. A promising direction of research of emotional intelligence of students is the study of the influence of using emotions to facilitate thought skills on metacognitive monitoring accuracy of the learning activities in university students.

We investigated how college students’ (n = 40) different levels of action unit 4 (AU4: brow lowerer), metacognitive monitoring process use and pre-test score were associated with metacognitive monitoring accuracy during learning with a hypermedia-based ITS. Results revealed that participants with high pre-test scores had the highest accuracy scores with low levels of AU4 and use of more metacognitive monitoring processes, whereas participants with low pre-test scores had higher accuracy scores with high levels of AU4 and use of more metacognitive monitoring processes. Implications include designing adaptive ITSs that provide different types of scaffolding based on levels of prior knowledge, use of metacognitive monitoring processes, and emotional expressivity keeping in mind that levels of emotions change over time, and therefore must be monitored to provide effective scaffolding during learning.

Metacognition is an important higher-order thinking process for successful learning. The present study investigated the relation between students’ performance and their metacognitive monitoring accuracy and bias and the extent to which differences in expected grade versus actual grade predicted accuracy and bias (N = 65), employing an explanatory sequential quantitativeàQUALITATIVE mixed method research design. The study also explored how students develop and refine metacognitive judgments. Results revealed that there were significant relations between performance and accuracy and bias, and that performance significantly predicted both accuracy and bias. Further, qualitative findings revealed that there were differences in how students developed and refined metacognitive judgments as a function of four aspects of learning: effort/preparation, strategy selection/implementation, planning, and evaluation. Educators should explicitly teach metacognitive monitoring skills to improve students’ self-regulated learning.

Self-regulated learning theory acknowledges the importance of an individual's metacognitive monitoring and group-level regulation for learning achievement in collaborative learning. However, very few studies have empirically investigated the interplay of these factors. This study aimed to investigate how groups' metacognitive interactions, group-level regulation, and individuals' metacognitive monitoring accuracy together predict students' learning achievement. Thirty groups of secondary school students (n = 94) attended a five-week physics course involving four 90-min lessons. Each lesson included a collaborative learning session in which the students solved physics problems in groups of three. After each session, the students filled out a quiz that evaluated their learning of the core concepts related to each lesson. The students' collaborative learning was video-recorded using 360-degree cameras. First, the groups' metacognitive interaction, co-regulation (CoRL), and socially shared regulation (SSRL) during collaborative learning were coded from the video data. Second, the students' metacognitive monitoring accuracy was determined in relation to quizzes presented at the end of each collaborative session. Each student's learning achievement was assessed at the end of the course with an individual written exam. Bayesian multilevel models were used to analyze the nested data. The results showed that the frequency of metacognitive interaction was positively related to learning achievement. However, the relation between CoRL and learning achievement was moderated by monitoring accuracy and metacognitive interaction. The relation between CoRL and achievement was positive when coupled with a high frequency of metacognitive interactions but negative under a low frequency of metacognitive interactions. In addition, in line with theory, the students with lower monitoring accuracy achieved higher learning when CoRL was frequent in a group. Due to the low occurrence of SSRL, its relation with learning achievement could not be analyzed. No reliable evidence for the relation between monitoring accuracy and learning achievement was found. The results highlighted the complex interplay of individual-and group-level factors related to collaborative learning outcomes.

Purpose. The paper is focused on the theoretical analysis of some theoretical and methodological aspects of the relationship between metacognitive monitoring accuracy and learning achievement success of university students. In particular, we highlight some approaches to the relation between metacognitive monitoring accuracy and learning achievement success that is a quite common problem in the university learning activity. Methods. The theoretical and comparative methods of studying metacognitive monitoring accuracy and learning achievement success of university students have been used in the study. The necessity in studying some theoretical and methodological aspects of the notion has been caused by the impact of metacognitive monitoring accuracy on students’ learning activities. Results. The study aimed at revealing the role of metacognitive monitoring in the university learning activity, studying the extent to which changes in monitoring cause changes in the nature of the students’ control over their own cognitive activities, specifying the nature of relationship between levels of confidence and students successes in learning, etc. A noteworthy finding is that students are generally overconfident in their self-assessments and this overconfidence effect is greatest for students of poorer abilities as they are doubly cursed: they lack knowledge of the material, and lack the awareness of the knowledge that they do and do not possess. The erroneous belief that information is understood when it is not is regarded as the illusion of knowing or overconfidence in knowing; the notion can be a significant obstacle to the effectiveness of the learning activities. Conclusions. The results of the analysis found in the study can play an important role in the process of understanding the relationship between metacognitive monitoring accuracy and learning achievement success of university students.

This study examined associations between vocabulary knowledge, reading fluency, cognitive flexibility, and metacognitive monitoring accuracy in reading comprehension among fifth-grade students. Participants (N = 104) completed measures of cognitive-linguistic abilities and reading comprehension, with global metacomprehension judgments after reading and item-level confidence ratings. Metacognitive monitoring accuracy was assessed using calibration of global metacomprehension judgments and item-level confidence ratings. Calibration bias (confidence minus performance) indexed miscalibration direction, and its absolute value indexed calibration accuracy. Resolution reflected discrimination between correct and incorrect item-level responses. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used exploratorily to examine theoretically motivated direct and indirect pathways via reading comprehension. Vocabulary knowledge showed the strongest associations with calibration accuracy and resolution, fully mediated by comprehension. Reading fluency showed a dual pattern: it contributed positively to resolution through comprehension, while also showing direct associations with lower calibration accuracy, indicating greater miscalibration and overconfident judgment tendencies among more fluent readers. Cognitive flexibility was not significantly related to any monitoring index. By jointly examining distinct indices of monitoring accuracy and separating comprehension-mediated from direct pathways, the study clarifies how cognitive-linguistic abilities may support or bias metacognitive monitoring in developing readers. Linguistic abilities, particularly vocabulary and fluency were central to students' comprehension monitoring accuracy.

This study investigated the relationship between executive functions and metacognition. Both constructs have been well-studied, but little research has focused on their connections. The goal of the current investigation was to increase the understanding of the relationship between metacognition and executive functions by assessing the relationships between metacognitive monitoring accuracy and the three component executive functions (updating, inhibition, and shifting) among college students. Metacognitive monitoring accuracy was measured using a knowledge monitoring accuracy (KMA) test. The three components of executive functions, updating, inhibition, and shifting were measured, respectively, using the ABCD updating task, the Stroop color–word interference test, and the letter–number task. The Tower of Hanoi task was used to measure the complex executive functions (inhibition and updating). Correlation and regression analyses were performed to examine the relationships. The results indicate that updating is the only component executive function that significantly correlated with metacognitive monitoring, suggesting that metacognition—specifically, metacognitive monitoring—is associated with at least one component of executive functioning.

Purpose. The paper is aimed to analyze some key features of the illusion of not knowing in metacognitive monitoring of the learning activity of university students. Among the main conceptions of the influence of the illusion of not knowing on metacognitive monitoring accuracy of the learning activity of university students we tend to study and to analyse different types of the learned information, as well as personal, cognitive, metacognitive, and individual psychological characteristics of students. Moreover, the study may allow to clarifying the phenomenon of the illusion of not knowing and its influence on metacognitive monitoring accuracy measures.
 Methods. The theoretical and comparative practical methods of studying the illusion of not knowing in metacognitive monitoring of university students have been used in the study. The participants learned texts, statements and pairs of words in Ukrainian. They performed JOLs, aJOLs, RCJs, and aRCJs. Calibration procedure helped to define average indicators of both the illusion of knowing and the illusion of not knowing. 
 Results. The findings indicate that the illusion of not knowing as an error of metacognitive monitoring accuracy (alongside the illusion of knowing) can occur in all types of metacognitive judgments, especially in the prospective judgments of learning. The highest levels of the illusion of not knowing are shown in learning pairs of words, smaller texts of all styles, and in ‘Yes’/‘No’/‘Do not know’ questions. Moreover, the effects of personal, cognitive, metacognitive, and individual psychological characteristics are also allocated.
 Conclusions. The paper provides an account of the effects of different types of information chosen for the experiment, and of personal, cognitive, metacognitive, and individual psychological characteristics of university students. The findings indicate the illusion of not knowing as an error of metacognitive monitoring accuracy alongside the illusion of knowing. These findings might help to solve the problem of metacognitive monitoring accuracy in the learning activity of university students.

Student learning in introductory science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses is often self-regulated. For self-regulated learning to be effective, students need to engage in accurate metacognitive monitoring to make appropriate metacognitive control decisions. However, the accuracy with which individuals monitor their task performance appears to largely overlap with their ability to perform that task. This study examined the trajectories in the accuracy of students’ metacognitive monitoring over the course of a semester, along with the effect of monitoring accuracy feedback. The results indicate that some students improve the accuracy of their predictions over the course of a semester. However, low-performing students are less accurate at predicting their exam grades, and tend not to improve their metacognitive calibration over the course of a semester. In addition, providing low-performing students with calibration feedback may lead to greater overconfidence.

The theoretical analysis of the researches on the influence of accuracy of metacognitive monitoring on the success of educational activity was carried out in the article. By metacognitive monitoring, we mean the ability to assess the current state of cognitive activity and the focus on tracking whether the subject is correct on the problem posed, and on establishing a level of understanding of the processed material. When considering the properties of metacognitive monitoring, one should pay attention to its accuracy. The precision of metacognitive monitoring allows an individual to successfully use effective metacognitive strategies to achieve the goals of cognition. This provides an advantage in planning information processing processes and identifying effective strategies in the future. The judgments of metacognitive monitoring are an important source of student control of cognitive processes during the acquisition of information. Obviously, in the case of excessive assurance, when memorizing the educational material, the student does not pay enough attention to study it, as he mistakenly believes that he has learnt it. However, underestimating its own abilities, the student will spend too much effort and time to process the information. The main trends in the accuracy of metacognitive monitoring and the success of learning activities are presented by the following assertions: high indicators of monitoring development, measured by various questionnaires, correlate positively with academic achievements and the success of the implementation of knowledge tests; School students and college students who demonstrate more precise metacognitive monitoring of the success of the tests of knowledge, have higher scores on these tests, and also have higher rates of academic performance; School students and college students who demonstrate low performance of knowledge tests, as well as low academic performance, tend to re-evaluate their knowledge. Keywords: metacognitive processes, metacognitive monitoring, learning activity, overconfidence, underconfidence, calibration. Accepted: 07. 0 9 .2018 Reviewed: 21 .0 9 .2018 Published: 12 .10.2018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31108/3.2019.2.9.4 * * * * * Завантажити/прочитати статтю PDF

This research examines the relationship between an intelligent feedback system grounded in procedural language theory and adult EFL learners' metacognitive monitoring and knowledge proceduralization. Using a quasi-experimental design, 100 adult learners from Shanghai University's continuing education program were assigned to either intelligent feedback or traditional feedback groups for 16 weeks. The intervention followed procedural language model theory through three stages: knowledge activation, proceduralization, and automatization. Assessment tools included CSE-based standardized tests, metacognitive accuracy measures, and satisfaction surveys. The intelligent feedback group gained 12.3 points in overall proficiency, surpassing the traditional group's 7.1-point increase, with a between-group effect size of 0.68. Speaking and writing showed the largest between-group effects (d = 0.72 and 0.78 respectively). Regarding metacognitive monitoring accuracy, the intelligent feedback group's bias value decreased from 18.3 to 7.2, while the relative accuracy gamma coefficient increased from 0.42 to 0.71. Mediation analysis revealed that metacognitive accuracy partially mediated the effect of intelligent feedback on language proceduralization, with the indirect effect accounting for 42% of the total effect. The study provides evidence for a positive association between intelligent feedback systems and language knowledge proceduralization and metacognitive development among adult English learners, providing both theoretical foundations and practical guidance for the deep integration of educational technology and language teaching. The findings offer significant implications for instructional innovation in adult continuing education.

The paper is focused on the theoretical analysis of some theoretical and methodological aspects of the role and importance of metacognitive monitoring in the self-regulated learning paradigm of university students. In particular, we highlight some approaches to the relation between metacognitive monitoring and students’ self-regulation that is a quite common problem in the university learning activity. Moreover, we also aim at revealing the diverse approaches to the definition of metacognitive monitoring, specifying the nature of relationship between metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. The theoretical and comparative methods of studying the role and significance of metacognitive monitoring in the self-regulated learning paradigm have been taken into account. Thus, we tend to consider metacognitive monitoring as the process of assessing the on-going progress and its results in learning, as well as the current state of students’ particular cognitive activity. The accuracy of metacognitive monitoring judgments strongly affects self-regulated learning. Accurate metacognitive monitoring produces more effective regulation, and this, in turn, leads to improved learning. A noteworthy finding is that through properly organized accurate metacognitive monitoring students can at the metacognitive level study cognitive features of knowledge acquisition and the use of learning strategies. Metacognitive control is also central to metacognition. Both monitoring and control form the basis for many theories of self-regulated learning. Inaccurate monitoring is connected to control decisions that are misaligned to learning requirements or task demands. The presented ideas can expand an investigation of metacognitive monitoring accuracy in the learning activity of university students

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported in Vol 32(1) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied (see record 2027-40760-001). The title was incorrectly published as "Metacognitive Monitoring of Political Facts: Effects of Political, Orientation and Knowledge and Cognitive Style." The byline appears as "Metacognitive Monitoring of Political Facts: Effects On" and has been corrected to "Me] Accurate metacognition is essential to informed political decisions and preventing the spread of misinformation, but research on metacognitive monitoring of political facts, outside of misinformation studies, has not met metacognitive research measurement standards. We addressed this limitation and assessed potential factors (political knowledge, political orientation, and cognitive style) related to this type of metacognitive monitoring accuracy. A sample of 216 Amazon Mechanical Turk participants completed measures of political orientation, political knowledge, and cognitive style, along with a test of political metacognitive monitoring accuracy, between February 2021 and March 2022. Participants were generally overconfident in their political knowledge, especially those with less political knowledge and who were more conservative, with conservatives also showing worse relative metacognitive accuracy. Cognitive style partially explained differences due to political orientation. Our participants were U.S. residents and disproportionately White, male, and lower-to-middle income, so studies of other samples and political contexts are needed for generalizability. Results also build on cue theory, showing that political knowledge and political orientation can act as metacognitive judgment cues. The study highlights the need to improve political metacognitive monitoring accuracy and reveals three targets for intervention: political knowledge, political orientation, and cognitive style. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Reports an error in "Metacognitive monitoring of political facts: Effects of political, orientation and knowledge and cognitive style" by Erika K. Fulton, Alicyn E. Ager, Erin Madison and Jeremy Russell (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, Advanced Online Publication, Oct 30, 2025, np; see record 2026-82121-001). The title was incorrectly published as "Metacognitive Monitoring of Political Facts: Effects of Political, Orientation and Knowledge and Cognitive Style." The byline appears as "Metacognitive Monitoring of Political Facts: Effects On" and has been corrected to "Metacognitive Monitoring of Political Facts." The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2026-82121-001.) Accurate metacognition is essential to informed political decisions and preventing the spread of misinformation, but research on metacognitive monitoring of political facts, outside of misinformation studies, has not met metacognitive research measurement standards. We addressed this limitation and assessed potential factors (political knowledge, political orientation, and cognitive style) related to this type of metacognitive monitoring accuracy. A sample of 216 Amazon Mechanical Turk participants completed measures of political orientation, political knowledge, and cognitive style, along with a test of political metacognitive monitoring accuracy, between February 2021 and March 2022. Participants were generally overconfident in their political knowledge, especially those with less political knowledge and who were more conservative, with conservatives also showing worse relative metacognitive accuracy. Cognitive style partially explained differences due to political orientation. Our participants were U.S. residents and disproportionately White, male, and lower-to-middle income, so studies of other samples and political contexts are needed for generalizability. Results also build on cue theory, showing that political knowledge and political orientation can act as metacognitive judgment cues. The study highlights the need to improve political metacognitive monitoring accuracy and reveals three targets for intervention: political knowledge, political orientation, and cognitive style. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).