Abstract
Three lidar receiver technologies using the total laser energy required to perform a set of imaging tasks are compared. The tasks are combinations of two collection types (3-D mapping from near and far), two scene types (foliated and unobscured), and three types of data products (geometry only, geometry plus 3-bit intensity, and geometry plus 6-bit intensity). The receiver technologies are based on Geiger mode avalanche photodiodes (GMAPD), linear mode avalanche photodiodes (LMAPD), and optical time-of-flight lidar, which combine rapid polarization rotation of the image and dual low-bandwidth cameras to generate a 3-D image. We choose scenarios to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various lidars. We consider HgCdTe and InGaAs variations of LMAPD cameras. The InGaAs GMAPD and the HgCdTe LMAPD cameras required the least energy to 3-D map both scenarios for bare earth, with the GMAPD taking slightly less energy. We comment on the strengths and weaknesses of each receiver technology. Six bits of intensity gray levels requires substantial energy using all camera modalities.
Highlights
A flash imaging lidar is a laser-based 3-D imaging system in which a large area is illuminated by each laser pulse and a focal plane array (FPA) is used to simultaneously detect light from thousands of adjacent directions
Singlephoton detection efficiency (SPDE) of 25%, dead time of 1 μs following breakdown, and dark count rate (DCR) of about 6 kHz at 225 K are typical of the 25-μm-diameter Geiger mode avalanche photodiodes (GMAPD) pixels for which calculations are made; not sensitive at 1550 nm, 128 × 32-format arrays of 18-μm GMAPD pixels have been reported
GMAPD cameras operate with a low probability of return on a single pulse but require coincident returns from the same range
Summary
A flash imaging lidar is a laser-based 3-D imaging system in which a large area is illuminated by each laser pulse and a focal plane array (FPA) is used to simultaneously detect light from thousands of adjacent directions. Singlephoton detection efficiency (SPDE) of 25%, dead time of 1 μs following breakdown, and dark count rate (DCR) of about 6 kHz at 225 K are typical of the 25-μm-diameter GMAPD pixels for which calculations are made; not sensitive at 1550 nm, 128 × 32-format arrays of 18-μm GMAPD pixels have been reported These arrays operate with 32.5% SPDE and 5 kHz DCR at 253 K due to the use of a wider bandgap the InGaAsP absorption layer optimized for 1064-nm signal detection.. The 30-μm InGaAs LMAPD pixels analyzed typically operate at linear gain M 1⁄4 20 with 0.2-nA dark current at 273 K, quantum efficiency (QE) of 80%, and an excess noise factor (F) parameterized by ionization coefficient ratio k 1⁄4 0.2, resulting in F 1⁄4 5.56 at M 1⁄4 20. Parameter Range (and altitude) DAS GSD Max aperture diameter Range precision Image size Image size on ground
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