Abstract
We previously demonstrated that intake of three eggs/d for 4 weeks increased plasma choline and decreased inflammation in subjects with metabolic syndrome (MetS). The purpose of the current study was to further explore the effects of phosphatidylcholine (PC) provided by eggs versus a choline bitartrate (CB) supplement on the gut microbiota, trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) formation, and plasma carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin in MetS. This randomized, controlled crossover clinical trial included 23 subjects with MetS. Following a washout period of 2 weeks without consuming any choline-containing foods, subjects were randomly allocated to consume either three eggs/d or a CB supplement for 4 weeks (both diets had a choline equivalent of 400 mg/day). DNA was extracted from stool samples to sequence the 16S rRNA gene region for community analysis. Operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and the α-diversity of the community were determined using QIIME software. Plasma TMAO, methionine, betaine, and dimethylglycine (DMG) were quantified by stable isotope dilution liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Plasma carotenoids, lutein, and zeaxanthin were measured using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. There were significant increases in plasma lutein and zeaxanthin after egg intake compared to the baseline or intake of CB supplement (p < 0.01). In contrast, TMAO was not different between treatments compared to the baseline (p > 0.05). Additionally, while diet intervention had no effects on microbiota diversity measures or relative taxa abundances, a correlation between bacterial biodiversity and HDL was observed. Following egg intake, the observed increases in plasma lutein and zeaxanthin may suggest additional protection against oxidative stress, a common condition in MetS.
Highlights
The link between egg-derived cholesterol and disease is subject to much investigation.Many population studies and clinical interventions show that egg intake does not increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases despite being rich in dietary cholesterol [1–3]
We previously demonstrated that when the consumption of three eggs/d is compared to the same amount of choline as a supplement (~400 mg), fasting plasma choline concentrations were higher with egg intake in a healthy young population [18]
We demonstrated that compared to the baseline, plasma trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) was not increased by eggs or choline [18]
Summary
Many population studies and clinical interventions show that egg intake does not increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases despite being rich in dietary cholesterol [1–3]. 300 mg/d limits for dietary cholesterol, shifting the focus to other components of eggs that may positively influence health [4]. Egg yolks contain the bioavailable forms of the potent antioxidant carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin, which protect against the development of metabolic diseases by increasing the mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes and decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines [5]. Eggs positively modulated carotenoid concentrations and lipoprotein subclasses compared to egg substitutes in adult men following a carbohydrate-restricted diet [6]. This lipoprotein is increased by egg consumption, further raising the importance of eggs as a good food source for these carotenoids to protect against metabolic syndrome (MetS) [7]
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