Abstract

Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) have different compositions compared to conventional petroleum jet fuels, particularly in terms of fuel sulphur and hydrocarbon content. These differences may change the amount and physicochemical properties of volatile and non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) emitted by aircraft engines. In this study, we evaluate whether comparable nvPM measurement techniques respond similarly to nvPM produced by three blends of SAFs compared to three conventional fuels. Multiple SAF blends and conventional (Jet A-1) jet fuels were combusted in a V2527-A5 engine, while an additional conventional fuel (JP-8) was combusted in a CFM56-2C1 engine. We evaluated nvPM mass concentration measured by three real-time sampling techniques: photoacoustic spectroscopy, laser-induced incandescence, and the extinction-minus-scattering technique. Various commercial instruments were tested including three LII 300s, one PAX, one MSS+, and two CAPS PMSSA. Mass-based emission indices (EIm) reported by these techniques were similar, falling within 30 % of their geometric mean for EIm above 100 mg/kgfuel (approximately 10 μg PM m−3 at the instrument), this geometric mean was therefore used as a reference value. Additionally, two integrative measurement techniques were evaluated: filter photometry and particle size distribution (PSD) integration. The commercial instruments used were one TAP, one PSAP, and two SMPSs. These techniques are used in specific applications, such as on-board research aircraft to determine PM emissions at cruise. EIm reported by the alternative techniques fell within approximately 50 % of the mean aerosol-phase EIm. In addition, we measured PM-number-based emissions indices using PSDs and condensation particle counters. The commercial instruments used included TSI SMPSs, a Cambustion DMS500, and an AVL APC, and the data also fell within approximately 50 % of their geometric mean. The number-based emission indices were highly sensitive to the accuracy of the sampling-line penetration functions applied as corrections. In contrast, the EIm data were less sensitive to those corrections since a smaller volume fraction fell within the size range where corrections were substantial. A separate, dedicated experiment also showed that the operating laser fluence used in the LII 300 laser-induced incandescence instrument for aircraft engine nvPM measurement is adequate for a range of SAF blends investigated in this study. Overall, we conclude that all tested instruments are suitable for the measurement of nvPM emissions from the combustion of SAF blends in aircraft engines.

Highlights

  • Aircraft engine particulate matter (PM) emissions are composed of non-volatile and volatile components (Gagné et al, 2021; Masiol and Harrison, 2014; Petzold et al, 2011)

  • We report the effect of laser fluence on the laser-induced incandescence of non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) for sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs)

  • As discussed below (Section 4.2.3), the higher EIm at higher N1 thrust was associated with larger particle sizes, and smaller penetration-function corrections

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Summary

Introduction

Aircraft engine particulate matter (PM) emissions are composed of non-volatile (black carbon, metal ash, oxygenated functional groups) and volatile components (volatile organic compounds, nitrates, sulphates) (Gagné et al, 2021; Masiol and Harrison, 2014; Petzold et al, 2011). Emissions are formed in the combustor, while volatile particulate matter (vPM). Aircraft engines emit vPM with similar or greater orders of magnitude as nvPM, especially after the vapour pressure of volatile species is lowered by oxidative aging (Kiliç et al, 2018) or by cooling (Beyersdorf et al, 2014). The. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has developed standards and recommended practices (SARPs) for measuring the mass- and number-based emissions of nvPM emitted from aircraft engines with maximum rated thrust >26.7. The SARPs for nvPM specify standardized sampling and measurement protocols (SAE, 2013, 2018; ICAO, 2017), which have been extensively evaluated and validated (Lobo et al, 2015b, 2020; Kinsey et al, 2021)

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