Abstract
25 adolescents from graded classrooms and 25 from ungraded classrooms (academic underachievers) were matched for age, sex, and IQ. All Ss were administered a test of combinatorial reasoning. Results indicated that young people from the ungraded classrooms made significantly more errors and were more concrete in their strategies than was true for the adolescents from graded classrooms. The results were interpreted as supporting the view that proficiency with symbols is a necessary condition for the effective utilization of combinatorial logic or formal operational thought.
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