Abstract
Recent progress in additive manufacturing technology has improved the realistic colour reproduction of 3D facial prostheses with computational optimisation of skin colour profiles. The colour appearance of the prosthetic surface depends on both the spectral characteristics of the surfaces and the scene illumination. Considering everyday environments, the colours of prosthetic surfaces should appear constant under various illuminations, although such evaluations on facial prostheses have had limited success to date. In this study, colour quality was assessed throughout the additive manufacturing process, namely, from the colour profile optimisation to the colour reproduction on the 3D facial prostheses. Colour profiles optimised for typical skin colour samples were applied to manufacture facial prostheses with two skin types, Caucasian and Chinese. The colour quality was assessed by the colour difference metric CIEDE2000 and spectral similarity against corresponding real skin data. The constant colour appearance of the prosthetic surfaces under different illuminations was estimated by introducing a reproduction colour-constancy index. The CIEDE2000 between the prosthetic and real skins was approximately 7.2 on average over all skin types and facial areas, which is slightly larger than the acceptable perceptual error. The level was relatively constant under different illuminations selected from the CIE standard daylight and fluorescent lights. The reproduction colour-constancy index ranged from 0.34 to 0.89, which is remarkably similar to the level observed in traditional colour constancy data in vision sciences. Spectral errors were close to those obtained by computational spectral reconstruction from digital RGB colours. These results suggest that the proposed colour management for facial prostheses may satisfy the requirement of colour quality in everyday environments with various illuminations. The causes and further improvement of the remaining errors in the manufacturing process are also discussed.
Highlights
The colour of skin can provide essential information about an individual’s health and emotional state [1,2,3]
The quality of colour reproduction in the 3D facial prostheses produced by additive manufacturing was assessed using a perceptual error formula, namely, CIEDE2000, and spectral analysis, using root mean square error (RMSE) and spectral similarity value (SSV)
The prostheses were based on a Caucasian female and two Chinese male individuals using the specially designed colour management profile
Summary
The colour of skin can provide essential information about an individual’s health and emotional state [1,2,3]. The ranges of colour difference ΔE*ab under different illuminants were similar to those of the dental shade guide; ΔE*ab was approximately 3.0, with the CIE standard illuminants A, D65 and F2 [25] These results may serve as a baseline to assess the colour quality of prosthetic skin surfaces in additive manufacturing. The colour qualities of facial prostheses with two different skin types, Caucasian and Chinese, are assessed by colorimetric and spectral errors relative to the corresponding real skin surfaces. The colorimetric and spectral evaluations indicate that colour perceptual errors between the facial prostheses manufactured through the proposed colour management pipeline and corresponding real skin surfaces are close to the acceptable level of error [8, 40]. This study refers to the spectral reflectances measured on the physical PANTONE Skin Tone Guide [20] as “ground-truth chart” and those of the real skin data as “ground-truth skin”
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