Clostridioides (Clostridium) Difficile in Food-Producing Animals, Horses and Household Pets: A Comprehensive Review.

Melina Kachrimanidou,Eleni Tzika,George Filioussis

doi:10.3390/microorganisms7120667

Melina Kachrimanidou, Eleni Tzika + Show 1 more

Open Access

https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7120667

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Journal: Microorganisms	Publication Date: Dec 9, 2019
Citations: 28	License type: CC BY 4.0

Affiliation: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Abstract

Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is ubiquitous in the environment and is also considered as a bacterium of great importance in diarrhea-associated disease for humans and different animal species. Food animals and household pets are frequently found positive for toxigenic C. difficile without exposing clinical signs of infection. Humans and animals share common C. difficile ribotypes (RTs) suggesting potential zoonotic transmission. However, the role of animals for the development of human infection due to C. difficile remains unclear. One major public health issue is the existence of asymptomatic animals that carry and shed the bacterium to the environment, and infect individuals or populations, directly or through the food chain. C. difficile ribotype 078 is frequently isolated from food animals and household pets as well as from their environment. Nevertheless, direct evidence for the transmission of this particular ribotype from animals to humans has never been established. This review will summarize the current available data on epidemiology, clinical presentations, risk factors and laboratory diagnosis of C. difficile infection in food animals and household pets, outline potential prevention and control strategies, and also describe the current evidence towards a zoonotic potential of C. difficile infection.

Highlights

Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile [1] (C. difficile) is a Gram-positive, anaerobic, spore-forming bacillus that colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals [2,3]
The bacterium exists in two forms: the vegetative form highly sensitive to oxygen and the heat-stable spore form, which is able to survive a variety of harsh conditions
It has clearly been shown that the use of antibiotics in veal production units is highly associated with high rate of C. difficile colonization in calves

Summary

Introduction

Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile [1] (C. difficile) is a Gram-positive, anaerobic, spore-forming bacillus that colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals [2,3]. A number of studies described the presence of C. difficile in the natural environment of animal farms, water environment, and tropical soil [55,56,57] These findings raised the concerns that domestic and wild animals could act as vectors for the spreading of C. difficile among humans. Weese et al, described the predominance of different PCR-ribotypes among farrowing sows and piglets suggesting that other sources than sows, probably environmental, could be responsible for the spreading of the bacterium among in newborn piglets [82] In this regard, Keessen et al, detected spores of C. difficile in air samples of pig farms following relocation of piglets suggesting that the bacterium could be spread by aerosols [87]. Common ribotypes among piglets in Europe are RT066 in Slovenia [90,91], RT 126 in Germany [92], RT015, 023, 014 and 013 in the Netherlands [33,77,93]

Food-Producing Animals

Diagnosis

Findings

10. Future Perspectives