Clinical empathy: definition, measurement, correlates, group differences, erosion, enhancement, and healthcare outcomes

Abstract

This article presents a brief history of the Jefferson Empathy Project, provides a definition of clinical empathy, and describes the Jefferson Scale of Empathy (JSE), the most frequently used instrument for measuring clinical empathy in health professions students and healthcare practitioners. Also, we highlight selected empirical findings from our team and other national and international researchers on correlates of clinical empathy showing significantly positive associations between scores on the JSE and measures of personal qualities that are conducive to relationship building. Findings include group differences on the JSE scores by gender, race/ethnicity, academic background, specialty interest, and clinical competence, as well as empirical findings on erosion and enhancement of clinical empathy in health professions students and practitioners. Additionally, significant associations are reported between physicians’ scores on the JSE, and pertinent/tangible healthcare outcomes in diabetic patients in the U.S. and Italy; plausible explanations are offered for psychosocial and neurobiological mechanisms possibly involved in the link between physician empathy and healthcare outcomes. These findings suggest that empathy must be placed in the realm of evidence-based medicine, considered an essential element of overall professional competence, assessed for admission decisions to medical schools and postgraduate training programs, and incorporated into professional development of all health professionals-in-training and in-practice.