Civilian Warfare: Violence, Race, and Citizenship in New Mexico during the Nineteenth Century

Abstract

Civilian Warfare:Violence, Race, and Citizenship in New Mexico during the Nineteenth Century Ian Lee (bio) By 1848, the United States had historically made heavy use of its citizenry to engage in warfare. Serving in capacities where the regular army couldn't, civilian militias had long been organized in every state and territory of the Union. In addition to participating in traditional wars, militias were commonly utilized as a solution to a weak standing army, being organized and deployed to deal with issues on state, territorial, or local levels. Employed with a more regional focus, local militias had been used to stem popular uprisings, engage in warfare with Native peoples, and recapture fugitive slaves, among multiple other purposes. Usually recruited from the localities that saw such issues, antebellum militia volunteers had been almost universally Anglo-American men.1 In this aspect, the Territory of New Mexico differed precipitously from the rest of the United States. With the territorial acquisitions gained after the U.S.-Mexico War (1846–1848), the United States absorbed thousands of non-Anglo peoples. These multi-ethnic inhabitants became the source of much confusion regarding civilian defense in New Mexico. As warfare with Native peoples reached a peak in the territory during the early 1850s, many civil officials began to recognize the need to organize a sustained, standing militia. Yet, partly due to Anglo-American racial ideologies alongside fears that civilian militias would provoke unnecessary hostilities with Native peoples, certain military officials in New Mexico by and large shied away from utilizing such a standing militia consisting mainly of Mexican Americans and Pueblo Indians. Diverging from the policies of the previous regimes, the United States attempted to establish a monopoly of force in the territory by leaving warfare with Native peoples almost solely in the hands of the military, only rarely allowing civilians to fight. Upon occupying New Mexico, [End Page 765] General Stephen Watts Kearny announced that unlike Mexico, the United States would finally offer New Mexicans protection from Indian raids.2 However, it quickly became clear to the territorial government, the settlers, and the Pueblo peoples that the protection offered by the army was substandard and would not nearly be enough to adequately protect the settlements. In order to afford the protection necessary, many nonmilitary personnel in New Mexico, including Indian agent turned first civilian governor James Calhoun, saw benefit in utilizing civilian militias either with or without the cooperation or permission of the regular army. The military, especially under Department Commander Edwin Sumner, saw things differently. Sumner and his counterparts, due in part to racialized ideas concerning Nuevomexicanos and Pueblo Indians, as well as issues concerning citizenship, loyalty, and self-restraint, tried to limit the organization and power of such civilian militias. This became a major point of contention, with the territorial government, citizens, and Pueblo Indians on one side, and the U.S. military on the other. This initial conflict concerning civilian defense, which took place in New Mexico during the short four-year period of 1848–1852, laid the overall framework for the nature of civilian warfare in the territory that would continue, excepting the Civil War era, until Geronimo's surrender in 1886. This short era birthed many of the overall policies and behaviors concerning civilian defense that would continue to be utilized for decades. These approaches included a curbing of the utilization of Pueblo militias, the enacting of a militia law, and a pattern of conflict with the military concerning civilian defense that guided the nature of civilian warfare in New Mexico. This essay uses archival research to argue that the ideas of Anglo-American officials concerning race and citizenship intersected with the institution of civilian militias in New Mexico because these units consisted mostly of Mexican Americans and Pueblo Indians, which, in turn, led to a disconnect and conflict between the territorial government, the multi-ethnic inhabitants, and the military. Ultimately, this era was crucial in supplying the foundations for New Mexican defense that continued for many years. This study intersects with the historiography of New Mexico on two fronts. First, this essay seeks to add a critical, yet often overlooked, perspective concerning military history in New Mexico. Many...