Abstract
Chronic venous outflow obstruction is a significant cause of chronic venous disease and therefore chronic morbidity. When conservative measures fail, intervention through deep venous reconstructive techniques should be considered. Referral should be considered in all patients with features of chronic venous disease that are life-affecting. Imaging relies primarily on duplex ultrasonography, supplemented by computed tomographic and magnetic resonance venography, and intraoperatively by intravascular ultrasonography. Intervention is primary endovenous, using angioplasty and stenting. Open surgical procedures are used in very select patients.
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