Abstract
Chromium (Cr) is an element naturally occurring in rocky soils and volcanic dust. It has been classified as a carcinogen agent according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Therefore, this metal needs an accurate understanding and thorough investigation in soil–plant systems. Due to its high solubility, Cr (VI) is regarded as a hazardous ion, which contaminates groundwater and can be transferred through the food chain. Cr also negatively impacts the growth of plants by impairing their essential metabolic processes. The toxic effects of Cr are correlated with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause oxidative stress in plants. The current review summarizes the understanding of Cr toxicity in plants via discussing the possible mechanisms involved in its uptake, translocation and sub-cellular distribution, along with its interference with the other plant metabolic processes such as chlorophyll biosynthesis, photosynthesis and plant defensive system.
Highlights
Chromium (Cr) is a silver-colored hard metal naturally occurring in rocky soils, and volcanic dust
Reports suggest that the enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants under Cr toxicity leads to oxidative burst by causing damage to DNA, lipids, pigments, proteins and stimulates the process of lipid peroxidation (Figure 1) [126,127]
This review illustrates an overview of Cr metal effects on plant growth and development
Summary
Chromium (Cr) is a silver-colored hard metal naturally occurring in rocky soils, and volcanic dust. Cr toxicity reduces plant growth by inducing ultrastructural modifications of the cell membrane and chloroplast, persuading chlorosis in the leaves, damaging root cells, reducing pigment content, disturbing water relations and mineral nutrition, affecting transpiration and nitrogen assimilation and by altering different enzymatic activities [15,22,23,24,25]. All these toxic effects of Cr might be due to the over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which disrupt the redox balance in plants [25]. We discuss different effects of Cr on plant pigments, photosynthetic parameters, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidative system and various endogenous levels of plant hormones (Table 1)
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