Chloroxylenol at environmental concentrations can promote conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes by multiple mechanisms

Abstract

The intergeneric conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) is recognized as an important way to the dissemination of antibiotic resistance. However, it is unknown whether the extensive use of chloroxylenol (para-chloro-meta-xylenol, PCMX) in many pharmaceutical personal care products will lead to the spread of ARGs. In this study, the abilities and mechanisms of PCMX to accelerate the intergeneric conjugative transfer were investigated. Results showed that exposure of bacteria to environmental concentrations of PCMX (0.20–1.00 mg/L) can significantly stimulate the increase of conjugative transfer by 8.45–9.51 fold. The phenotypic experiments and genome-wide RNA sequencing revealed that 0.02–5.00 mg/L PCMX exposure could increase the content of alkaline phosphatase and malondialdehyde, which are characteristic products of cell wall and membrane damage. In addition, PCMX could lead to excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by 1.26–2.00 times, the superoxide dismutase and catalase produced by bacteria in response to oxidative stress were not enough to neutralize the damage of ROS, thus promoting the conjugative transfer. Gene Ontology enrichment analysis indicated that cell membrane permeability, pili, some chemical compounds transport and energy metabolism affected conjugative transfer. This study deepened the understanding of PCMX in promoting propagation of ARGs, and provided new perspectives for use and treatment of personal care products.